2025 Volume 31 Pages 1-11
Although the goal of ecotourism is to balance tourism with environmental conservation, there are concerns regarding the excessive promotion of tourism. One measure to prevent excessive use is to certify tourism operators. However, certification is inconsistent with regional autonomy, and because it is a voluntary initiative, there may be limitations in its scope. Accordingly, we conducted a case study of a certified eco-tour guide system for Amami-Oshima Island in Japan to determine whether a certification system for eco-tour guides would promote the appropriate use of the environment. This study included interviews with stakeholders and a questionnaire survey administered to certified guides. To obtain certification, guides must complete a training course and possess guide experience. In addition to securing work, the guides also obtained certifications to improve their quality. Guides work at a higher frequency than in other areas. However, concerns arose because of the lack of penalties for self-regulation agreed upon by the Council and the presence of unqualified guides. We conclude that penalties and legal systems should be introduced for malicious cases. In addition, discussions of use regulations should involve both guides and residents in the negotiation process, and a third-party organization should be engaged to provide accreditation, ensuring that the impact of regulations is properly assessed.
Ecotourism has attracted considerable attention as a sustainable form of tourism (Harada, 2005; Madhumita and Bani, 2015). An advantage of ecotourism is that a high proportion of the related economic benefits remain in the region and the use of protected areas can be regulated according to residents' opinions (Ito, 1997). Based on these expectations, some researchers have considered ecotourism a tool for regional development (Shikida and Morishige, 2003).
However, there are concerns about ecotourism. One is that ecotourism could lead to mass tourism development that borrows its name (Self et al., 2010; Tanaka et al., 2011). To avoid substantial large-scale development, it is necessary to evaluate the balance of environmental conservation, regional development, and tourism promotion (Madhumita and Bani, 2015; Kaizu, 2016).
Mechanisms are in place to certify regions and guides that meet specific criteria for preventing ecotourism from destroying the environment. One benefit of the tourism certification system is that it presents business challenges that can be addressed, thereby increasing business sustainability (Graci and Dodds, 2015). Specifically, energy use and facility management costs have decreased with certification, because the requirements for certification include items related to environmental considerations (Dziuba, 2016). Government support for management has also been encouraged (Botero and Zielinski, 2020). Moreover, certification increases the likelihood of attracting environmentally-conscious travelers (Jorge, 2002; Fogle and Duffy, 2018). The accreditation body charges a fee for certification, although the amount varies depending on the size of the business (Holub, 2015). The expenses and efforts to obtain certification can be burdensome (Margaryan and Stensland, 2017; Gkoumas, 2019). Small businesses with limited funds and labor may find this burden even more severe.
Research on eco-labels can be helpful in terms of showing environmental considerations. Eco-labels, which are symbols or seals, assist consumers in identifying products and services that are environmentally superior, thereby boosting their confidence in making eco-friendly purchases (Darnall et al., 2018). Studies on eco-labeling in relation to tourism have shown that four conditions are necessary: (1) broad coverage and penetration, (2) well-defined and transparent entry criteria, (3) independent audits, and (4) penalties for non-compliance (Buckley, 2002). On the other hand, Buckley's (2002) discussion focuses on the acceptance of ecolabels in the marketplace, and it is debatable how these four conditions are actually considered. Several discussions (Honey and Rome, 2001; Graci and Dodds, 2015; Bučar et al., 2021) define certification in tourism as "voluntary initiatives." These voluntary initiatives are expected to be limited in their efforts related to examinations and penalties because of concerns regarding the lack of funding and staffing of the institutions that perform certification (Haris and Jago, 2001). In addition, from the perspective of community autonomy, there is a concern about the contradiction between the certification process, which presents the desirability of tourism, and local autonomy (Klintman, 2012; Kenchu, 2021). The unconditional affirmation of third-party audits may deprive regions of autonomy. However, the absence of audits and penalties may lead to invalidation of the certification system. Therefore, the validity of ecotourism certification remains a subject of debate.
In addition, the benefits of ecotourism may be concentrated in specific individuals or groups (Kandel et al., 2020) or in entities outside the region (Harada, 2005). Thus, paying attention to whether revenue from ecotourism spreads to small businesses is important when considering the development of an entire region through ecotourism.
Therefore, this study views guides as small-scale tourism businesses and examines the impact of the certification system on them. As previously mentioned, a guide certification system has been implemented on Amami-Oshima Island. Using Amami-Oshima Island as a case study, we provide recommendations on whether a certification system for eco-tour guides can fulfill the criteria of appropriateness of environmental use.
The research methods included a literature review, stakeholder interviews, and questionnaire surveys with certified eco-tour guides (hereinafter referred to as "certified guides").
Stakeholder InterviewsInterviews were conducted with eco-tour guides, organizations related to ecotourism, and local governments. The interviews included questions related to the background that led to the introduction of ecotourism, and the current status and challenges of the institutional ecotourism framework.1 The interviews were conducted over 20 days from November to December 2021, May 2022, November 2022, and March 2023.
Table 1 shows the summary of interviewed participants. Guides A and B worked outside the island after graduating from high school and then returned to Amami-Oshima Island to start their guide businesses. Guide C was an immigrant from outside Kagoshima Prefecture who had worked for a company engaged in marine activities and had started her own guide business. In the interviews conducted prior to this study, many of the guides reported being born in the Amami Islands. Therefore, three groups of guides were selected: guides who are local and have been in the guiding business for a short time, guides who are local and have been in the guiding business for a long time, and guides from outside Amami-Oshima Island. In addition, we obtained testimony that only a few companies were engaged in the guide business as a company, and that most companies were sole proprietors. Therefore, the survey targets were selected by considering different forms of guide employment.
| A | B | C | |
| Gender | Female | Male | Female |
| Hometown | Amami Island | Amami Island | Outside of Kagoshima Pref. |
| Guide work history | 3 years | 17 years | 26 years |
| Tour Contents | Wildlife observation on Santaro City Road Canoeing in mangrove forests |
Guide to Kinsakubaru Native Forest Canoeing in mangrove forests |
Assistance of diving and other marine
activities Guide to Kinsakubaru Native Forest |
| Types of employment | Multiple jobs (Self-employed) | Full-time (belonging to a company) | Full-time (Self-employed) |
1 To avoid any disadvantage to the research subjects in conducting the research, we followed the "Research Guidelines Based on the JSS Code of Ethics" established by the Japan Sociological Society. In accordance with these research guidelines, we informed the research subjects of the purpose of the research and obtained their consent. Furthermore, we anonymized the names of the research subjects with regard to matters that may cause them to suffer disadvantages.
2 Class 2 driver's license: Required when operating a commercial passenger-carrying vehicle such as a taxi, stipulated in Articles 84 and 86 of the Road Traffic Act.
The questionnaire asked certified guides about their guiding practices, motives for obtaining certification, and problems with or motivations for the certified guide system. Regarding the number of guided tours, we asked about the number of jobs per year in 2019 and in 2021.
The questionnaire was developed by adding and changing questions based on a questionnaire survey targeting the "National Government Licensed Guide Interpreter" (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism[MLIT], 2008; Okinawa General Affairs Bureau, Cabinet Office, 2015). The National Government Licensed Guide Interpreter is a national qualification in the guide business. The 2008 MLIT survey was administered to National Government Licensed Guide Interpreters nationwide. The 2015 survey was conducted using National Government Licensed Guide Interpreters in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. This survey aimed to pinpoint particular needs for tourism in Okinawa and issues concerning the reception of tourists. Okinawa is located south of the Amami Islands and was registered as a World Heritage Site at the same time as Amami-Oshima and Tokunoshima Islands. However, because Okinawa has been more active in tourism efforts than Amami (Government of Japan, 2019), questionnaire in this research was developed based on a survey conducted in Okinawa. Of the 137 guides registered as certified guides, 134 were included in the survey, excluding 3 who declined the survey because they were not engaged in the guide business. The questionnaire survey was conducted between August and October 2022.
The questionnaire was distributed to the Wide Area Administration Association of the Amami Islands, which oversees the certified guide program. Responses were collected by mail to Nagoya University and via Google Forms, a web-based service; 36 valid responses were received by mail and 13 by Google Forms for a total of 49 responses (36.6% of those surveyed).
Research Site OverviewFig. 1 shows a map of the study area. The Amami Islands in southern Japan have a humid subtropical climate. Administratively, Amami Islands are classified as belonging to Amami City and Oshima County, Kagoshima Prefecture. Of these, Amami City on Amami-Oshima Island has the larger population (Kagoshima Prefecture, 2024). The remoteness of the Amami Islands from the mainland and the declining population due to a low birthrate and an aging population have resulted in poor economic development (Ikeda, 2021). The Amami Islands were registered as a national park in 2017 and as a World Natural Heritage Site in 2021 because of their endemic ecosystems (Amami City, 2021). The number of visitors is expected to increase because the region is registered as a national park and a World Heritage Site (Amami Islands Ecotourism Promotion Council, 2017), and balancing environmental conservation and economic development is needed (Onodera, 2022).
Map of Amami Islands.
Source: Prepared by the author using data from the National Land Information Division, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism, Japan, and the Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Environment, Japan
Note: Islands names are listed only for islands where a Liaison Council exists.
Koike (2022) noted that only after the 1970s did tourists visit the Amami Islands because of an increase in diving and other recreational activities. In the late 1990s, tourism in mangrove forests and other forested areas began to take place (Song, 2020), and tourism activities became more diversified (Kiyose et al., 2021) In 2001, Kagoshima Prefecture promoted World Natural Heritage registration as a key policy, and environmentally friendly tourism (ecotourism) began to be considered for introduction (Song, 2017).
Regarding local ecotourism, some studies have focused on the relationship between the rules of use and guide users (Mitsui and Kubo, 2018), reported the current status of ecotourism (Kaizu, 2022), examined the ecological impacts before and after registration as a World Heritage Site (Suzuki et al., 2022), and discussed the impact of World Heritage registration from the perspective of tourism promotion (Koike, 2022). However, no studies have investigated the current status and challenges of guiding businesses in Amami or the impact of obtaining certification.
Eco-tour guides include assisting marine activities, observing wild flora and fauna, canoeing through mangrove forests, and exterminating invasive alien species (Amami-Oshima Island Ecotourism Liaison Council, 2022). There are some categories (e.g., forest, ocean, and village areas) in which each guide operator provides guided tours.
Eco-tour guides are registered with the "Ecotour Guide Liaison Council" (hereinafter referred to as the Liaison Council) on each island. On Amami-Oshima Island, registration with the Liaison Council and working as a guide necessitates completion of the initial stage of training for eco-tour guides. This training program started in 2014 and consists of 20 lectures over two years to cultivate basic knowledge of guides. The content is supervised by academic experts and covers topics ranging from knowledge of the local environment to emergency response and hospitality. In the second year of training, the participants are divided into guide and tour participant roles and provided a tour demonstration. As one could not complete the course after missing even one lecture, the total number of participants was 750, and the total number of graduates was 262. Upon completion of the initial training, the guides may act as registered guides.
After completing the initial training stage, the guides can apply to become certified guides if they meet certain requirements, such as a history of local residency or passing a paper-based test. Certified guides are defined as those with an in-depth knowledge of the nature and culture of the Amami Islands. Also, certified guides are responsible for conserving the local environment and providing visitors with safe and high-quality experiences. The certification allows the guides to guide visitors to areas where entry is restricted from the viewpoint of environmental protection (Kinsakubaru Native Forest and Santaro Line area, hereafter referred to as "restricted areas") and to transport participants without a class 2 driver's license.2
The certified guide system was initiated in 2016 and 137 people had been certified as guides as of the survey date. In 2020, certification requirements were updated, and performance requirements, such as the number of times a guide has guided for a fee, were added to the list of requirements. Certified and registered guides receive a sticker to display on the vehicle carrying guide users so that they can be identified as certified or registered guides. In summary, there are two levels of training related to guiding. Registered guides who have completed the initial training stage can obtain certification for paid guiding experience.
The Promotion Council on each island makes recommendations for the guide registration and certification system and the voluntary rules described below. The Amami Islands Ecotourism Promotion Council holds the highest decision-making authority (Amami Islands Ecotourism Promotion Council, 2017). Fig. 2 illustrates the ecotourism-related organization. The certified and registered guides belong to the Liaison Councils shown at the bottom of the figure. The Promotion Councils on each island in the center of Fig. 2 comprise local government officials, eco-tour guides, representatives of community organizations and fishery associations, and forestry association officials. The upper part of Fig. 2 depicts the Amami Islands Ecotourism Promotion Council, which makes final decisions on ecotourism-related initiatives with the participation of officials from the Ministry of the Environment and the Forestry Agency, as well as academic experts.
Organizational structure related to ecotourism.
Source: Prepared by the author by Amami Islands Ecotourism Promotion Council (2017)
The chairperson of the Liaison Council in Amami-Oshima Island responded, "Representatives of residents and users of the sea and mountains are included in the Liaison Council. Selection of participants is based on the idea that nature has been preserved because of the people who have used it." He recounted regarding the first meeting, "At first, the direction of the meeting was not clear. Each participant was saying what he or she wanted to say." However, at the most recent meeting, he said that discussions on the future of ecotourism had been held and that the understanding of ecotourism among meeting participants had deepened. He was surprised to hear someone he had never expected to speak about the future of ecotourism, indicating that he sensed a more profound understanding among the participants. Regarding consensus-building among the participants, an Amami City official stated, "I think it was easier to obtain participants' understanding of the regulations and use of the area. The reason for this may be that the guides, not a government official, serve as the chairpersons of the Council."
The Liaison Council also formulated voluntary rules for guiding activities, including the driving speeds of cars for wildlife observation, the number of vehicles allowed to enter a restricted area, and what to do if an exotic species is discovered. Voluntary rules require reservations for entry into restricted areas. Additionally, visitors should be accompanied by a certified guide when entering restricted areas. In September 2022, an experimental use quota was established to allow residents who were not guides to enter restricted areas. Amami City officials explained that this was intended to allow residents to use the restricted area, assuming that residents guided their acquaintances. The city planned to discuss the possibility of increasing or decreasing the number of slots used by residents based on the results of the demonstration experiment.
As described above, the guide took the initiative in building a consensus on using the environment with the participation of residents who regularly used the environment. Additionally, the rules of use were frequently adjusted to incorporate resident requests. However, some stakeholders have raised concerns. The Chairperson of the Liaison Council considered some residents and guides not following voluntary rules as constituting an issue. Some guides who had not been certified guided visitors through restricted areas (Nankai Nichinichi Shimbun, 2019). When we entered the restricted area with a certified guide, we confirmed the presence of tour guides guiding participants who exceeded the maximum allowed number set by the voluntary rules. The Liaison Council also discussed penalties and legal backing (Nankai Nichinichi Shimbun, 2019). The chairperson of the Liaison Council explained that although measures such as suspending operations for a certain period could be considered, "we are currently limiting ourselves to verbal warnings because their livelihood depends on the guide business." Guide C stated, "Even within the Liaison Council, opinions on the regulation of ecotourism differ. Individual guides must be autonomous to reduce their burden on the environment." As of the survey date, there were no penalties for deviation from voluntary rules, and the use of the area depended on the guides' voluntary efforts.
In relation to deviations from voluntary rules, we also asked about legal support in restricted areas. However, an Amami City official explained that regulating the number of vehicles passing through a restricted area is difficult because some areas are city roads. Regulating traffic for purposes other than "preserving the structure of the road or preventing traffic hazards" is difficult (Article 46, Road Act). An Amami City official also stated that some residents use the road for purposes other than observing wild animals and plants. In addition, the city office has received comments from residents who did not feel comfortable with the regulations.
In summary, two levels of training were provided to the guides, which ensured their understanding of the environment and quality assurance. Furthermore, a consensus-building forum was established with the participation of residents who normally use the environment, and adjustments were made to usage rules, such as the establishment of usage quotas by residents. However, only unenforceable penalties are imposed for deviations from voluntary rules, and there is currently no legal backing for such penalties.
Current Status of the Eco-tour Guide BusinessIn this section, we examine the status of the certified guide system and eco-tour guidance based on the results of a questionnaire survey. Fig. 3 shows the age structure of the respondents, with the largest number in their 60s, followed by those in their 50s and 40s. In the Okinawa Survey (Okinawa General Affairs Bureau, Cabinet Office, 2015), which was used as a reference when preparing the questionnaire, the largest number of respondents were in their 40s, followed by those in their 60s or older, and then those in their 30s. Compared to Okinawa, the ratio of guides in their 50s and 60s was higher. Guide C stated that the reason for the large number of older guides is that the income from the guiding business is not stable; therefore, the proportion of older people who can work in it during their leisure time with their pension income may be high.
Age structure of the respondents (n= 49).
Source: Prepared by the author from the questionnaire survey, same as below.
The gender of the respondents was 38 (77.6%) male, 9 (18.4%) female, and 2 (4.0%) non-responsive. Given that 33.0% of the respondents in Okinawa were male and 67.0% female, the percentage of male workers was high.
Regarding the type of employment, 16 respondents (32.6%) were full-time guides, 29 (59.2%) had a main or side job in addition to guiding, and 4 (8.2%) had obtained certification but did not work as guides. This survey revealed that more than 90% of respondents were employed as guides. Compared to 30% (MLIT, 2008) and 50% (Okinawa General Affairs Bureau, Cabinet Office, 2015) of the respondents to other surveys working as guides, this indicates a high percentage of certified guides engaged in the guide business.
Regarding side businesses, while some were related to tourism, such as lodging or souvenir stores, others were not, such as farming or working as local welfare commissioners. Among the guides interviewed, Guide A was engaged in guiding, crafting experiences, and arranging films for TV programs. Guide C also explained that although she is currently a full-time guide, she had worked as a district head. Guide A cited two reasons for starting a side business: gaining knowledge about Amami, and dealing with a situation in which she could not guide due to bad weather. Guide C also stated that he began guiding in the Kinsakubaru Native Forest as a substitute activity when the sea was rough.
Fig. 4 illustrates the annual number of guided tours conducted between 2019 and 2021. The number was calculated after excluding responses such as several times and year-round. Responses regarding the number of working days, such as 20 days, were converted to the number of tours by taking the tour frequency as once a day based on the suggestion (Ministry of Environment, 2008) that most eco-tour itineraries on the Amami Islands consist of one- or half-day tours. As a result, a total of 35 valid responses were obtained. The average number of tours in 2019 was 140.3 (±150.5), with a maximum of 600 tours and a minimum of 2. The average number of tours in 2021 was 97.1 (±114.5), with a maximum of 500 and a minimum of 2. No significant differences were observed between 2019 and 2021 (p = 0.267). Among full-time guides, the number of tours was 283.1 (±136.0) in 2019 and 199.8 (±117.7) in 2021, while among the guides with multiple jobs, the number of tours was 49.9 (±59.6) in 2019 and 40.8 (±60.4) in 2021. In the MLIT survey, more than half of the respondents answered that they guided by themselves 1–30 times per year, suggesting that even those with multiple jobs engaged in the guiding business relatively frequently. This may be because a certain amount of paid guide experience is required to obtain certification.
Number of annually conducted tours in 2019 and 2021.
Fig. 5 shows the changes in guide income associated with COVID-19. More than half of the respondents indicated that their income had decreased, and 20% of the respondents indicated that their income had been reduced by 50% or more, which, combined with the decrease in the number of jobs mentioned above, negatively impacted their income. In addition, we were able to identify only one response stating that the guide was suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the negative impact on income, most respondents continued to operate their businesses.
Change in guide income due to COVID-19 (n= 45).
Fig. 6 illustrates the problems associated with working as a guide. In this question, respondents were prompted to provide up to three answers, except for the option 'none in particular'. Although no responses were received regarding lack of time, the difficulty balancing main and side jobs, or difficulty securing guide work among those working full-time, such responses were found among those working multiple jobs and those not working as guides. This suggests that multiple job groups considered securing guide services a problem. The implementation of side jobs and diversification of guide locations can be viewed as a response to securing guide services.
Problems in working as a guide (n= 49).
Thus far, we have examined the eco-tour guide business in terms of the number of jobs and the stability of guide businesses. A high percentage of certified guides work and both part-time and full-time guides frequently conduct guided tours. In addition, the interviewed guides were found to implement side jobs or diversify their guiding locations to stabilize their income.
Survey on the Intentions toward Certification SystemThis section examines the intentions toward a certified guide system. Fig. 7 shows the motivation for obtaining certification. In this question, respondents were prompted to provide all applicable answers. In all, 32 respondents (65.3%) obtained certification as guides. In Okinawa, which was used as a reference, 46.4% of the respondents answered, "obtained qualification to work as guides." Although there was no significant difference between the two groups (p = 0.052), there was a slightly stronger tendency to obtain certification in Amami with employment. Many respondents, especially those working concurrently as guides, cited "self-improvement" as their motivation, whereas in Okinawa, 37.5% of the respondents answered "for self-improvement." The difference between this survey and that in Okinawa was statistically significant (p = 0.039), suggesting that the respondents intended to improve their guiding skills through certification.
Motivation for obtaining certification (n= 49).
Fig. 8 shows the skills that respondents wanted to improve as guides. In this question, respondents were prompted to provide up to three answers, except for the option 'none in particular'.The number of responses of "Knowledge of the environment in Amami" and "Knowledge of the history and culture of Amami" were higher than those of "On-the-job training on tourist guidance" and "Knowledge of tourist trends." This suggests that respondents intended to further develop their expertise in the local environment, history, and culture.
Skills that respondents want to improve as a guide (n= 49).
Fig. 6 illustrates the problems associated with working as a guide. One item that attracted many responses was "Eco-tour guides are not recognized and appreciated." In Okinawa, "Difficulty in securing work" and "Insufficient income" were followed by "Interpreter guides are not recognized and valued." In Okinawa, low income or few jobs was perceived as more of an issue than the lack of guide system recognition. Thus, the survey indicated that respondents considered the recognition of eco-tour guides a major issue.
Approximately 30% of the respondents cited many guides being unqualified as an issue. The Wide Area Administration Association of the Amami Islands, which is in charge of the certified guide system, commented, "We can warn guides who are not certified and falsely claim to be certified. However, the Liaison Councils on each island manage guides who have completed the initial stage of training but have not yet obtained certification (registered guides). If the Wide Area Administration Association gives guidance on registered guides, this may cause tension in the relationship between the Wide Area Administration Association and Liaison Councils.
The Wide Area Administration Association also explained that it has becomes difficult to provide legal support for the transportation of passengers by guides who do not have certification. In Amami, certified guides or drivers with Class 2 driver's licenses can drive with tour participants. However, some operators who do not fall into these categories may transport tour participants. If they claim that they are transporting their relatives rather than guide users, it is impossible to sue them. From this point, differences in organizations with jurisdiction sometimes make it difficult to pay attention, and policing on passenger transport has proven difficult.
Thus far, we have examined the intentions toward the certification system. As a motive for acquiring certification, in addition to employment as a guide, respondents wanted to enhance their expertise in the local environment, history, and culture. However, there was a lack of recognition of the certified guide system. Illegal activities by unqualified guides were found to be difficult to control.
In this section, we discuss the conditions under which a certification system can promote sustainable tourism based on Buckley's four conditions described in the Introduction. Of the four conditions, we focus on independent audits because of conflicts with local autonomy and the certification process. We also focus on penalties for non-compliance; the voluntary nature of certification makes its effectiveness uncertain.
Independent AuditOn Amami-Oshima Island, the guide takes the lead in determining how regulations should be implemented. The Promotion Council is composed of members of the Ministry of the Environment, the Forestry Agency, and academic experts. These academic experts oversee the initial training course for prospective registered guides. Instead of a direct involvement in local ecotourism, its role can be viewed as monitoring its implementation. Moreover, Amami City officials testified that the guides take the lead in determining how regulations should be enforced, facilitating residents' understanding. A previous study reported that residents' participation in tourism-related activities helped preserve the local environment and culture (Walter, 2009). From a regional development perspective, regional actors should take the lead in regulations and resource management (Nakagawa et al., 2013).
However, as explained in the Introduction, there is also a concern about excessive promotion under the guise of ecotourism. In some cases of resident-based tourism, the lack of governance by administrative entities has disregarded the principle of respecting the autonomy of local communities (Iwai, 2017). By disregarding the purpose and philosophy of certification, not only has the relationship between the environment and local communities worsened (Wieckardt et al., 2022) but also leads to so-called "greenwashing" that misleads tourists about environmental concerns (Self et al., 2010; Heras-Saizarbitoria et al., 2020). In addition, the certification process denies local autonomy. Therefore, it is necessary to survey the entities that administer certification to determine whether they respect regional autonomy.
Therefore, the region must be involved in determining how regulations should be enforced, and a third party outside the region must provide accreditation to ensure that the use and regulation of the system are not excessively promoted. In the Amami Islands, the national government or Promotion Council of the Amami Islands may play the role of auditing certification bodies and implementing accreditation. However, as the relationship between the Promotion Council and each island's Liaison Council has not been fully investigated, this is an issue for future research.
Penalties for Non-complianceIn the Amami Islands, two levels of training were conducted to obtain certification: initial stage training to become a registered guide and training to obtain certification. The respondents had obtained certification to work as guides and were seeking to expand their knowledge of Amami. The results of this study do not indicate a causal relationship between certification and increased employment opportunities. However, the fact that many respondents wanted to deepen their knowledge of Amami suggests that sharing local knowledge may increase job opportunities.
The importance of training for tour guides has been highlighted (Christie and Mason, 2010), although there are limited opportunities to improve knowledge and skills as a group due to a failure to update the course content (Morishige, 2018). Morishige proposed that by sharing their interests, guides can enhance their knowledge and skills. Therefore, incorporating the preferences of guides and offering training programs may serve as a motivation for achieving certification. As explained in the Introduction, certification is expected to increase the number of tourists, while posing difficulties for small businesses due to the cost and burden of the application. For small businesses, the connection between knowledge or technological enhancement and certification may serve as an incentive to obtain certification.
However, since deviations in voluntary rules occurred even after the training course had been completed, the training course may not have prevented deviant behavior. There are no enforceable measures against deviations, and many voluntary rules are left to the discretion of the guides.
As for voluntary rules, while self-regulation can be more flexible than regulation based on the legal system, there is a risk that regulation may not function adequately if the checking system is insufficient (Sagara, 2003). In Japan, penalties for acts that adversely affect flora, fauna, and ecosystems are not fully functional (Takahashi, 2022), and there are concerns about the negative impacts on wildlife with the increase in the number of guided tours in Amami-Oshima Island (Suzuki et al., 2022). Therefore, penalties for malicious cases will likely become necessary in the future.
Furthermore, the absence of free-riders using the natural environment without a regulatory framework leads to compliance with self-regulation (Student et al., 2016). Cases of deviation from regulations should also be analyzed to ensure more effective regulation. However, because the questionnaire survey was conducted via the Wide Area Administration Association, which coordinates the guide certification system, it is possible that guides who hold negative views of the Association and its initiatives did not respond. In other words, the questionnaire might have been biased toward positive responses regarding the Association and its initiatives. Therefore, we have not been able to fully discuss the intentions of guides who deviate from voluntary rules, or the background of such deviations. This will be a subject of future research.
This work was supported by the ESPEC Foundation for Global Environment Research and Technology; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science under grants JPMJSP2125, JP19K12442, and JP21H03705; and Japan International Cooperation Agency under grant Project for the Promotion and Enhancement of the Afghan Capacity for Effective Development Phase 2.
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to Amami City, the Wide Area Administration Association of the Amami Islands, and the ecotour guides. For the statistical analysis, we also thank Hori Akiho, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University.
