How Can the Gender Wage Gap Be Reduced ?

Abstract

Japan’s Gender Gap Index remained low in 2025, ranking 118th out of 146 countries, while the gender pay gap for similar work has shown a worsening trend in recent years. Why has progress in closing this pay gap been so limited in Japan ?

To answer this question, we first undertake a historical review of debates within post-war social policy studies concerning the factors behind the gender pay gap, examining the contributions of scholars such as Shojiro Ujihara, Emiko Takenaka, and Masumi Mori. We then consider which of these factors persist to the present day. Within this, we argue that an underlying issue common to both full-time and part-time female employment is the persistent inequality in the distribution of time between men and women for care responsibilities such as childcare. This inequality continuously perpetuates women’s disadvantage in employment and wages.

Finally, through an international comparison between Japan and Germany, we argue that transforming this situation requires policies concerning “time” - both legal and within companies - specifically systems that integrate care time into working hours. Such systems hold the potential to improve the gender pay gap.