Recent advances in molecular biology have led to identification of molecules associated with carcinogenesis and the development of molecular-targeted drugs that selectively attack qualitative or quantitative molecular changes in cancer cells. Molecular-targeted drugs are classified into "small molecules" and "therapeutic monoclonal antibodies" due to these modalities' difference in molecular weight. Molecular-targeted therapy is often guided by clinically meaningful biomarkers, including the gain or loss of function in cancer-related target genes, which could occur due to point mutations, amplification events, fusions, or deletions. Potent therapeutic effects can be expected from targeting mutations, called driver mutations, which directly underlie carcinogenesis, using corresponding molecular-targeted drugs. In recent years, the development of next-generation sequencing technologies has made it possible to quantitate expression of hundreds of gene sequences at once, and an oncogene panel containing genes related to cancer has been approved for coverage by the national health insurance in Japan. Precision Medicine is medical care designed to optimize efficiency or therapeutic benefits for particular patient groups or individual patients using genetic or molecular profiling. Precision medicine is finally underway in Japan due to recent advances in the development of molecular-targeted drugs and development of affordable diagnostic methods.

Currently, many molecular-targeted agents are used for treatment of various hematological malignancies. Especially, all-trans retinoic acid for acute promyelocytic leukemia, and tyrosine kinase inhibitors for chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) play important roles as curative therapeutic agents, leading to a shift in treatment paradigm. Although the role of molecular-targeted agents in "acute myeloid leukemia (AML) " other than acute promyelocytic leukemia is currently limited, FLT3 inhibitors show efficacy in its relapsed/refractory cases, and venetoclax is used in unfit patients, in combination with azacitidine. The combined use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors and conventional cytotoxic anticancer agents improves treatment outcomes in patients with Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Also, a novel anti-CD22 antibody is currently available for treatment of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Treatment strategy of multiple myeloma has been extensively improved by the development of molecular-targeted agents, including immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs), proteasome inhibitors, and anti-CD38 antibody. In B-cell lymphoma treatment, "rituximab", an anti-CD20 antibody agent, plays significant role as a single agent or in combination with cytotoxic anticancer agents. "Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors" are also currently available for this role. Continuous progress in molecular targeted therapy is requisite for further improvement in clinical outcome of hematological malignancies.

The number of molecular-targeted drugs available for breast cancer therapy has steadily increased in recent years and plays a central role in the systemic treatment of breast cancer.

Apart from endocrine drugs, trastuzumab, an anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) drug for treating HER2 overexpressing breast cancer, available since April 2001 in Japan, is well-known in the field of breast cancer. However, there are five types of anti-HER2 drugs available as of January 2022, with expanded indications ranging from treatment for metastatic breast cancer to postoperative adjuvant therapy and preoperative medication. Other molecular-targeted drugs, such as angiogenesis inhibitors, mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors, cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors, poly adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ribose polymerase inhibitors, and immunological checkpoint inhibitors, have been used in clinical practice based on the results of numerous clinical trials. In December 2021, a new option to use a molecular-targeted drug as an insured medical treatment was added to postoperative adjuvant therapy for hormone receptor-positive and HER2-negative breast cancer, an alteration after approximately 20 years since the introduction of aromatase inhibitors.

As described above, molecular-targeted drugs are being developed yearly, but there remain limitations to drugs that can be used to treat each breast cancer subtype. Therefore, it is necessary to appropriately select and use therapeutic agents based on subtype and time of introduction.

In urology, molecular-targeted therapies have been mainly used to treat advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC). While the treatment for RCC is surgical resection, drug treatments can also be considered in cases of incurable or metastatic advanced RCC. Since the 1980s, cytokine therapy, such as the injection of interferon-α and interleukin-2, has been the main therapy for advanced RCCs. Individuals with RCC frequently overexpress vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is characterized by increased blood flow and angiogenesis. Because of the molecular characteristics of RCC, drug treatments targeting these molecules or their corresponding downstream signaling molecules have been researched and developed. In Japan, five types of multi-kinase inhibitors, including receptor tyrosine kinases and two types of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors, are currently being used.

Although these molecular-targeted therapies have more significant therapeutic effects than cytokine therapies, they have problems with adverse effects and drug resistance. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) related to the immune system in cancer pathogenesis were developed several years ago, and insurance coverage has been applied for advanced RCC in Japan since 2016. The usefulness of ICI combination therapies has been demonstrated in several clinical trials, and four types of ICI combination therapies have been approved as the first-line treatment for advanced RCC in Japan. Based on various guidelines, it is important to consider patient, tumor, and drug characteristics when selecting the appropriate drug treatment for advanced RCC.

Molecular-targeted drugs affect the various molecules associated with cancer cell progression, infiltration, and metastasis. Recently, advances in molecular biology identified molecules associated with cancer and inflammatory disease, and new molecular-targeted drugs being developed accordingly. Unlike cytotoxic anticancer agents, molecular-targeted drugs act on cancer-specific molecules, causing less damage to normal cells. Consequently, there are fewer adverse events specific to molecular-targeted drugs. These advances in drug development promise new effective treatments for gastroenterological diseases.

Cell surface antigens, cytokines, receptors, and signal transduction molecules that are centrally involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases have been elucidated, and therapeutic targets have been identified. Molecular-targeted drugs are now available, which can treat rheumatoid arthritis and other diseases, including psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. These targeted drugs have been rapidly developed and have shown potential for achieving clinical remission in many rheumatic diseases. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) play major roles in rheumatoid arthritis, and IL-17 and IL-23 play crucial roles in spondyloarthritis. Biological disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (bDMARDs) that specifically inhibit the actions of these cytokines and targeted synthetic DMARDs (tsDMARDs) such as Janus Kinase (JAK) inhibitors have been approved, increasing the treatment options. Molecular-targeted drugs also hold promise for treating collagen diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis, and vasculitis. However, some drawbacks related to their use persist, including high drug costs and the risk of adverse events such as infectious diseases. Therefore, the criteria for selecting patients who are most likely to benefit from these drugs should be developed.