Open defecation (hereafter OD) is a public health and sanitation challenge common in many developing countries. The prevalence of OD in these countries undermines the realisation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 6. Open defecation is widespread in Ghana and Tamale, to be quite specific. Drawing on 48 semi-structured interviews, six Focus Group Discussions, and the SaniFOAM framework as the analytical tool, this study found that several intersecting behavioural, structural and institutional factors are responsible for the OD situation in Tamale. Specifically, the study found that there is an opportunity (lack of toilet facilities as well as the deplorable nature of the few existing toilets) to engage in OD in Tamale. Further, there is a lack of motivation to end OD practices. Many residents were unwilling to pay for the construction of toilet facilities in households. Additionally, some of the participants reported that they simply do not have the ability to pay for toilet facilities, given the several competing needs that they have to address. The article concludes by noting that OD is prevalent in the TAMA area because of the mutually reinforcing factors above. Accordingly, addressing OD practices in Tamale requires ensuring that public toilet facilities are in sanitary conditions, enforcing local legislation against OD, and supporting landlords to construct toilet facilities in residential buildings. Also, there is a need for intensive and sustained public education on OD and behavioural change, since providing toilet facilities in sanitary conditions does not guarantee usage.

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The global population is increasing, and approximately 70% of them will live in cities by the year 2050. Thus, cities are becoming major hotspots for human waste rich with nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Nutrient recycling from human waste reduces the pressure to produce mineral fertilizer, saves natural resources, and reduces environmental pollution. However, nutrient recycling as compost, pellet, raw/treated sludge or incinerated ash is done only on a small scale mainly due to business limitations. Therefore, this review paper aims to identify new sustainable methods for recycling of human waste, with a particular focus on urban areas. The study was conducted by searching for sanitation-related keywords across various databases. Secondary data was collected from the literature and analyzed to produce the result. We found that urban sanitation should be re-designed considering new nutrient recycling technologies, end product markets, and new business models. This approach will facilitate recycling human waste locally and the production of minerals from human waste, thereby assisting in food security and environmental protection, reducing water contamination, and improving public health. Local governments must have a good policy to attract entrepreneurs to develop nutrient recycling into a sustainable business. This article reviews the limitations and constraints of nutrient recycling processes and suggests sustainable solutions.

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