Characteristics of the Curriculum on Viruses in Modern Japanese Junior High Schools

ABSTRACT

To clarify the characteristics of virus education in compulsory education in Japan, this study analyzed virus-related sections of The Commentary on the Course of Study for junior high schools and all junior high school teaching materials approved by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. It examined how viruses are treated from three perspectives: learning objectives, methods, and content. The results revealed the following: (i) In Japanese junior high schools, students learn about viruses in classes for Japanese language, Social Studies, Science, Health and Physical Education, and Moral Education. (ii) Only Health and Physical Education sets learning objectives related to viruses, including the concepts and factors of viral diseases, transmission routes, and preventive measures. (iii) Learning methods mainly involve activities in which students organize, analyze, and reflect on information. (iv) Although the learning content extensively addresses relationships between viruses and human society and the natural world, students have very limited opportunities to learn about the fundamental characteristics of viruses themselves. These findings suggest the need to establish a systematic academic framework for developing students’ understanding of viruses within the junior high school curriculum and to present both harmful and beneficial aspects of viruses. This study provides the first comprehensive survey of virus education in Japanese junior high schools.

INTRODUCTION

This study elucidates the current status and issues regarding virus education in the modern Japanese junior high school curriculum. The existence of viruses inherently intersects with diverse dimensions of human society, including history, geography, civic systems, language, and culture. In accordance with this multifaceted nature, their presence has garnered profound attention in Japan’s general population following the COVID-19 pandemic, and its impact can no longer be ignored in school education. In this context, numerous studies have been published on the subject, including Simon (2021), which summarized the state of virus education in schools in several countries other than Japan, such as Canada and Germany; Kushner and Pekosz (2021), which discussed the reality of virus education in high schools and university courses; and Auld et al. (2020), which discussed how health literacy should be developed in K-12 education in the United States. Meanwhile, there have been a few studies related to the subject in Japan. Uchiyama (1993) discussed the structural analysis and problems of the curriculum on AIDS education based on several teaching plans. Similarly, Araya et al. (2022) analyzed a unit on COVID-19 in elementary science in the U.S. Takemura (2024) reviewed research trends in Japan’s virus education, especially the development of teaching materials on viruses, in comparison to the rest of the world. However, there have been no studies that examine teaching materials to analyze the current state of the junior high school curriculum on viruses.

Therefore, this study extracted the descriptions of viruses from all junior high school teaching materials, reference books, and workbooks in Japan (referred to as “teaching materials”), as well as The Commentary on the Course of Study that guides them, and examined how viruses are treated across three perspectives—learning objectives, methods, and contents—to elucidate the characteristics of virus education in Japanese schools.

METHODS

To achieve the above objectives, the following procedures were used:

1) The study extracted, through visual inspection, all sections/texts containing the word “virus” from The Commentary on the Course of Study for Junior High Schools issued in 2017 (General guidelines, Japanese, Social Studies, Mathematics, Science, Music, Art, Health and Physical Education, Technology/Home Economics, Foreign Languages, Special subjects, Moral Education, the Period of Integrated Studies, and Special activities; 13 books in total) and analyzed them from three perspectives: learning objectives, methods, and contents.

2) The study extracted the sections/texts containing the word “virus” through visual inspection from the teaching materials approved by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (see Appendix 1 for a list of the teaching materials) and analyzed them from three perspectives: learning objectives, methods, and contents.

3) The study clarified the characteristics of virus education in the current curriculum for Japanese junior high schools through a comprehensive review of Procedures 1) and 2).

RESULTS

How the Curriculum Treats Viruses as a Study Subject

The Commentary on the Course of Study

After reviewing the descriptions in The Commentary on the Course of Study, the study confirmed some descriptions of viruses in the editions of Technology/Home Economics and Health and Physical Education.

The “Technology and Home Economics” section encompasses the Technology and Home Economics fields. In the Technology field within this section, the content is outlined across four distinct areas: A. Materials and Processing Technologies, B. Biological Cultivation Technologies, C. Energy Conversion Technologies, and D. Information Technologies. Regarding the explanatory notes for Area D, the following was stated:

Having students consider the measures necessary to safely use digitized information may help them deepen their understanding of the matters necessary for appropriate ways to conduct activities according to the circumstances of the use of information, including the importance of personal authentication such as ID/password and biometric authentication, filtering, virus checking, […] and other functions, intellectual property rights including copyright, […] (MEXT, 2017a, p. 52).

It is clear from the context that the term “virus” in this instance refers to computer viruses. This is the only section in which viruses are mentioned, and no distinction is made between computer viruses and biological viruses.

In the Health and Physical Education edition, which includes both physical education and health, viruses are described in the explanation of the “Contents” section for health. This section is divided into four categories: (1) Healthy Living and Disease Prevention, (2) Development of Mental and Physical Functions and Mental Health, (3) Prevention of Injuries, and (4) Health and Environment; viruses are mentioned only in (1). In addition, descriptions related to viruses appear under “(a) Determinants of Health and Causes of Diseases” and “(e) Prevention of Infectious Diseases” within the six pillars of “Knowledge” outlined in this section.

To summarize the findings with a focus on biological viruses, the analysis of The Commentary on the Course of Study reveals that, regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no explicit objectives are specified, though guiding texts contain statements functioning as such. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods), no descriptions are identified. Regarding Perspective 3 (learning contents), references to biological viruses are exclusively documented within the health section of the Health and Physical Education edition and restricted to the categories of determinants of health, causes of diseases, and prevention of infectious diseases.

Teaching materials

Table 1 summarizes for each grade the presence or absence of descriptions of viruses in the teaching materials for each of the subjects described in Method 2. A single textbook is used for three years (from the first to the third year) for Health and Physical Education regardless of the publisher. Although the contents of the teaching materials are divided into sections according to the school year, the description of viruses was in the opening picture of the textbook, which did not have divided sections. Therefore, the author assumed that it was the first thing that first-year students would see and categorized it as learning content for first-year students.

Table 1. Presence or absence of references to viruses in teaching materials by school subject.

School year	Japanese		Social Studies			Mathematics	Science	Music	Art	Health and Physical Education	Technical Subjects		Foreign Languages	Moral Education
	Japanese	Calligraphy	Geography	History	Civics						Technology	Home Economics
1	×	×	○ 1/4	○ 5/8		×	×	×	×	○ 4/4	○ 3/3	○ 3/3	×	○ 1/7
2	○ 1/4	×				×	○ 1/5	×	×	○ 4/4			×	○ 1/7
3	○ 1/4	×			○ 5/6	×	○ 1/5			○ 4/4			×	○ 4/7
Note. Entries with a mention are marked with a ○, whereas those without are marked with an ×. Numbers in the table represent the percentage of publishers that included content about viruses.

As shown in Table 1, the study confirmed references to viruses in Japanese, Social Studies, Science, Physical Education, Technology, and Moral Education, with descriptions increasing by grade level. In particular, all publishers addressed the topic in Health and Physical Education across all grades. Computer viruses were also mentioned in a second-year Japanese textbook from one publisher (PC only), in Civics textbooks typically used in the third year by two publishers, in Technology textbooks (a subject not tied to a specific grade) by four publishers, and in a third-year Moral Education textbook by one publisher.

In summary, the analysis reveals that viruses are addressed across all subjects except Mathematics, Music, Art, and Foreign Languages, specifically appearing in Japanese, Social Studies, Science, Health and Physical Education, Technical Subjects, and Moral Education. The inclusion rates among publishers and the range of these subjects expand from the first to the second and third years. Within this curriculum, Health and Physical Education is the only subject in which all publishers consistently include content about viruses across all grades, whereas the inclusion rates in other subjects vary depending on the publisher and school year.

Virus Education in the Respective Subject Areas

Based on the results described above, the study identified the characteristics of virus education across the three perspectives based on all descriptions related to viruses in the teaching materials for six subjects (Japanese, Social Studies, Science, Health and Physical Education, Technology, and Moral Education). As The Commentary on the Course of Study addresses this topic only in Health and Physical Education, the discussion of the other subjects relies on the teaching materials. For Health and Physical Education, this paper discusses the curriculum guidelines and teaching materials, whereas for other subjects, it only discusses the teaching materials.

Japanese

One of the four publishers of teaching materials for Japanese mentioned the topic in “Let’s Listen and Evaluate” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 52) and “Let’s Expand Our Vocabulary” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 339), both included in the third-year Japanese unit. Although another publisher

mentioned viruses in “Let’s Use the Internet” (Kodama et al., 2022, p. 78) for the second-year unit, it was excluded from the scope of the discussion because the topic referred to computer viruses.

Perspective 1: Objectives

No virus-related objectives were noted.

Perspective 2: Methods

“Let’s Listen And Evaluate” instructs students as follows:

The following speech was given by a person who works at a town hall in Miyazaki Prefecture. After listening to the speech, write down what you understood or agreed with in the speech, and what you think is good about the way expressions were used and how the speaker talked. Also try to summarize the technique you want to use in your expressions (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 54).

　The following five perspectives of evaluation were listed in the book.

•    Is the speech based on valid evidence? Is the connection between the claim and the evidence appropriate?
•    Is the speech clearly structured for conveying the speaker’s claim accurately?
•    Does the speech use simple and specific examples and memorable episodes?
•    Does the speech apply a creative approach or use information and other materials effectively to attract the listeners’ attention or enhance its persuasiveness?
•    Does the speech use a creative speech style in terms of intonation, pauses, etc.?

In other words, students are expected to follow these instructions to evaluate the content and expressions of the speech that mentions viruses. Although an understanding of viruses is not required to capture the outline of the speech or evaluate the manner of expression, it is essential in determining whether the argument is supported by sound evidence.

The unit “Let’s Expand Our Vocabulary” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 339) states “By learning many words, we can deepen our thoughts and expand the range of our expressions. Let’s discover various words and use them when you are reading and writing sentences.” Although the book encourages the students to do so, it does not specify learning methods.

Perspective 3: Contents

The unit “Let’s Listen and Evaluate” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 52) introduces a speech by a town hall official on responses to foot-and-mouth disease (a viral disease of cattle), specifically as follows.

The virus is airborne and spreads explosively, so we had to destroy, meaning, we had to kill, infected cattle as soon as we found them […]. To prevent the spread of foot-and-mouth disease, both uninfected cows and newborn calves were subject to destruction. It was a very painful and sad process for us. Furthermore, due to the risk of people carrying the virus, access to the town was restricted, life became inconvenient, and all the townspeople became exhausted (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 54).

The unit “Let’s Expand Our Vocabulary” contains the following descriptions: “A new type of virus was detected” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 341) and “It is different from known viruses” (Aizawa et al., 2022, p. 341). They are designed for students to learn the words “detection” and “different” assuming that they already know the meaning of “virus.”

The analysis of Japanese textbooks reveals that references are confined to only one of the four publishers within its third-year units. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no virus-related objectives are identified. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods) and Perspective 3 (learning contents), no unique teaching methods are specified. The descriptions of biological viruses are utilized exclusively as contextual material for evaluating speech structure and expressions or as an illustrative example for vocabulary acquisition, assuming prior knowledge of the term itself.

Social Studies

In Geography, the teaching materials from one of the four publishers mention aspects related to viruses, scattering them widely within the units “Various Regions of the World” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p. 43) and “Various Regions of Japan” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p. 118).

　In History, five of the eight publishers included aspects related to viruses in chronological tables in the following units: “Social, Political, and Economic Movements in Japan” (Yasui et al., 2022, p. 292), “Historical Chronology” (Kurushima et al., 2022, p. 299), “Major Events” (Fujioka et al., 2022, p. 301), “Historical Chronology” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p.1), “Modern Japan and the World” (Hashiba et al., 2022, p. 254). Further, “To Open the Future” (Kurushima et al., 2022, p. IV) refers to “virus” in the context of information society and “History of Olympics and Paralympics” (Fujii et al., 2022, p. 280) refers to it in the context of sports events.

In Civics, five of the six publishers included aspects related to viruses in the units “Respect for Basic Human Rights” (Ito et al., 2022a, p. 54), “Globalization Today” (Eguchi et al., 2022, p.5), “Respect for Basic Human Rights” (Eguchi et al., 2022, p. 41), “Democratic Government and Us” (Eguchi et al., 2022, p. 67), “The History of Japan and the World (Chronology)” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 10), “The Japanese Constitution Respecting Individuals” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 38), “We Live in International Society” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 192), “We Will Build Future Society” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 228), “International Society and Sustainability” (Noma et al., 2022, p. 178), “Chronology of Contemporary Japanese History” (Noma et al., 2022, p. 248), and “Japan in the International Society” (Koyama et al., 2022, p. 165). Additionally, although it was not a unit, the topic of viruses was also mentioned in the terminology guide, “Infectious Diseases” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 259). “Viruses” were also mentioned in the unit “How to Get On With the ‘Internet society’” (Noma et al., 2022, p. 60) and “Information Society” (Koyama et al., 2022, p. 4) but referred to computer viruses and were outside the scope of this study.

Perspective 1: Objectives

There were no descriptions of virus-related objectives in any of the three subjects.

Perspective 2: Methods

In Geography, there was a section that asks, “How will Tokyo change as a result of hosting the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games?” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p. 232), based on the fact that these games were delayed for a year and held without spectators due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Students were asked to consider the impact of infectious disease outbreaks and international events on the area. This was the only teaching material related to learning methods.

In History, only the following two excerpts suggest learning methods, encouraging students to think and learn proactively: “How should we relate to society to build a more prosperous and peaceful world?” (Tomeshima et al., 2022, P. 282), “Tokyo hosted the Olympic and Paralympic Games for the second time in 2021. Let’s learn about the purpose of the modern Olympic Games and how Japan has been involved in them” (Fujii et al., 2022, p. 280).

In Civics, three types of learning methods were mentioned.

First, students are to study by simply being prompted and encouraged, as in the following example: “What rights are necessary for everyone to be treated as irreplaceable?” (Narita et al., 2022, p. 46).

Second, students are to analyze and explain the information they have gained: “Let’s check: How does globalization work? Find out from the main text and write it down” and “Let’s explain: Based on the impact of globalization, explain why more and more people in the world are involved in international cooperation” (Eguchi et al., 2022, p. 48).

Third, students are to consider reasons and future actions, as in the following example: “Think about what you can do to eliminate discrimination and summarize your thoughts” (Ito et al., 2022a, p. 59).

Perspective 3: Contents

In Geography, the topic of virus was referred to in supplementary texts cautioning that the pictures and graphs in the teaching material were outdated, as in “These are pre-COVID-19 figures” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p. 55). Fourteen similar passages were found in the same textbook.

Few sections mentioned the impact of the pandemic on tourists, international events, and the economy: “COVID-19 pandemic drastically reduced the number of tourists and brought a major impact on the economy” (Mizuuchi et al., 2022, p. 264). In Geography, the topic was limited to COVID-19 as timely information and mostly as supplemental comments.

In History, the pandemic was mentioned in all publications as a major social event representative of the year, as in “2020 Start of the Global Epidemic of the New Coronavirus” (Hashiba et al., 2022, p. 255) (eight locations in total). There were descriptions related to COVID-19, either as an opportunity for the widespread use of Information and Communication Technology or an indication of the difficulty of hosting the Olympic and Paralympic Games, as in the following two examples: “The spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019 not only restricted the movement of people but also led to the spread of the use of information and communication technologies for people to contact one another” (Tomeshima et al., 2022, p. 283). “Even amid the unprecedented circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic, athletes around the world competed with all their might” (Fujii et al., 2022, p. 281).

As seen above, only COVID-19 was mentioned in the teaching materials for History, mostly as a major event of the year.

In Civics, HIV, COVID-19, hepatitis B, and smallpox were mentioned as a virological topic.

First, the impact of infectious diseases on society, social trends surrounding them, and related information were presented as follows:

Infectious diseases are diseases caused by viruses and other pathogens that invade and proliferate in the body. When an infectious disease spreads globally, it is called a “pandemic.” In the past, smallpox, cholera, HIV, and other infectious diseases have caused pandemics. SARS, which spread in 2003, was contained as a regional epidemic, but in this age of globalization and active movement of people across the world, measures against avian influenza and Ebola, which have a high fatality rate, are urgently needed. COVID-19 (the new coronavirus), which broke out in 2019, subsequently became a pandemic and caused deaths and injuries of many people worldwide (Narita et al., 2022, p. 259).

Second, the topic was mentioned in relation to technology in society, as in the following example:

“Random Fact: A Threat of Other WMD” The threat and fear of WMD (weapons of mass destruction) is not limited to nuclear weapons. Biological and chemical weapons are also WMD that can cause extremely large numbers of casualties with small quantities. Biological weapons target humans and animals using bacteria and viruses, or toxins produced from them, such as the smallpox virus, anthrax, and botulinum toxin. Chemical weapons are poisonous gases such as sarin and VX gas, which kill people by destroying their nerves and making their skin itch. These WMD, along with ballistic missiles used for carrying them, pose a serious threat to our country and to the urban populations of the world (Koyama et al., 2022, p. 197).

This example shows that the topic was included under the label of “biological” weapons and treated in the same category as bacteria.

Third, the topic was addressed in relation to discrimination and prejudice against individuals with HIV and AIDS in society. In some Civics materials, it was also discussed alongside leprosy, a disease caused by the leprosy bacillus.

Discrimination against people infected with diseases and those with disabilities is also a serious issue. HIV (AIDS virus) is not transmitted to healthy people in normal social contact, and the development of therapeutic drugs has helped to control the onset of the disease. However, there is no end to the cases of discrimination against HIV-infected people because of misunderstanding and prejudice. Although leprosy is an infectious disease that can be completely cured with medication, there are still incidents of discrimination against people, even after they have recovered from the disease (former leprosy patients). Efforts to eliminate discrimination against those with such diseases are also being made in many areas (Eguchi et al., 2022, p. 48).

When considering how to eliminate discrimination and prejudice, as in these examples, it is essential for students to understand how infections are transmitted. Accordingly, a basic understanding of viruses is required as preliminary knowledge for engaging in this learning activity.

In Civics, a wide variety of viruses were treated in relation to social trends and issues, without being specifically distinguished from bacteria.

The analysis of Social Studies textbooks reveals varying inclusion rates across three subject areas: appearing in one of four publishers in Geography, five of eight in History, and five of six in Civics. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no virus-related objectives are specified in any of these subject areas. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods), references are confined to specific contexts, prompting students to consider regional impacts of infectious diseases in Geography, proactive reflections on social engagement or international events in History, and civic approaches ranging from human rights discussions to globalization analysis and discrimination elimination in Civics. Regarding Perspective 3 (learning contents), Geography and History subjects restrict their focus entirely to COVID-19 as supplemental notes or major annual social events, whereas Civics covers a broad range of viruses, including HIV, COVID-19, hepatitis B, and smallpox, in the contexts of public health, biological weapons, and social discrimination, without specifically distinguishing viruses from bacteria.

Science

In Science, the topic of viruses was mentioned in the teaching materials by only one of the five publishers, specifically in the second-year unit “Components and Functions of Blood” (Ōya et al., 2022, p. 46). Although the topic of viruses was mentioned in the unit “Continuous Development of Science and Technology” (Murofushi et al., 2022, p. 316) for third-year students, it referred to computer viruses and was excluded from this study.

Perspective 1: Objectives

No virus-related objectives were noted.

Perspective 2: Methods

“Components and Functions of Blood” had the following section as an exercise: “Write a brief explanation about the function of each of the components of the underlined parts a–d (of which a is a white blood cell)” (Ōya et al., 2022, p. 64). It also provides an example answer to a: “It breaks down pathogens such as viruses and bacteria” (Ōya et al., 2022, p. 300).

Perspective 3: Contents

　The diagram of human blood included the following description of the function of white blood cells: “They break down pathogens such as viruses and bacteria” (Ōya et al., 2022, p. 46). Here, viruses are mentioned alongside bacteria as examples of pathogens eliminated by white blood cells, and this unit—published by a single publisher—is the only instance in which viruses are explicitly addressed in Science. By contrast, teaching materials from the other publishers omit any specific reference to viruses and instead describe the role of white blood cells in more general terms, such as “bacteria and other germs,” as illustrated in the following examples: “[White blood cells] break down foreign substances such as bacteria and other germs” (Kajita et al., 2022, p. 142); “White blood cells have a function of capturing bacteria and other germs that have entered the body and are useful in preventing diseases” (Arima et al., 2022, p. 128); “White blood cells protect the body by taking in foreign substances such as bacteria and other germs that have entered the body and breaking them down” (Murofushi et al., 2022, p. 135); and “They [white blood cells] protect the body by moving around by themselves and breaking down pathogens that enter the body” (Shimoda & Morimoto, 2022, p. 123).

　The analysis of Science textbooks indicates that references are confined to a single unit regarding blood components by only one of the five publishers. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no virus-related objectives are specified. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods) and Perspective 3 (learning contents), the explicit mention of viruses is restricted to a small extent within the context of human immunity, specifically as an example of pathogens eliminated by white blood cells, while other publishers utilize more general terms. Furthermore, the structure or microscopic components of viruses are not mentioned, and their actual biology is not described in any of the examined textbooks.

Health and Physical Education

The topic of viruses was mentioned in the teaching materials by four out of the four publishers as follows: First-year units - “Harmonious Life” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 16), “Healthy Life and Prevention of Disease (1)” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 5), “Development of Mental and Physical Functions and Mental Health” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 19), “Healthy Life and Prevention of Disease” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 16), “Response to Mental Changes in Adolescence” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 38), “Healthy Life and Prevention of Disease (1)” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 26). Second-year units - “Cancer and Its Prevention” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 80), “Cancer Prevention” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 96), “Cancer Prevention” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 74), “Cancer and its Prevention” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 90). Third-year units - “Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Society’s Efforts to Protect Health” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 132), “Hygienic Management of Waste Associated with Daily Life” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 136), “Healthy Living and Disease Prevention (3)” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 147), “The Cultural Role of International Sports Events” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 122), “Healthy Living and Disease Prevention” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 132), “Sports as Culture” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 136), and “Healthy Living and Disease Prevention (3): ” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 150). It is notable that the topic of viruses appeared not only in the glossary but also in the list of exhibits and the index, although these are not included above as they do not constitute units. This suggests that the term “viruses” was regarded as significant. No reference to computer viruses was found in the Health and Physical Education textbooks.

Perspective 1: Objectives

The Commentary on The Course of Study consists of learning objectives and contents but does not mention viruses in the objectives and their explanations. However, the explanations on the contents contained texts similar to objectives in the following three sections.

Students should be able to understand that health involves maintaining the person and environment in good condition and that disease is one of the states in which health is impaired. Furthermore, students should be able to understand that diseases are caused by the interrelationship between factors involving the person and those of the environment. When teaching, ensure that students understand that the factors involving the person are [...]. Ensure that students understand that the factors involving the environment include the physical and chemical environment, such as temperature, humidity and toxic chemicals; the biological environment, such as viruses and bacteria; and the social environment, such as human relationships and health and medical institutions. (MEXT, 2017b, p. 210).

To ensure the students understand that infectious diseases are caused by the transmission of pathogens through the environment, and that the risk of infection can be reduced by taking proper countermeasures, refer to examples, such as tuberculosis, cholera, infectious gastroenteritis caused by norovirus, measles, and rubella, as appropriate. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms, and students should be able to understand that pathogens invade the body and cause infectious diseases in a complex interrelationship between the natural environment, including temperature, humidity, social environment, including housing, population density, transportation, and the person’s conditions, such as their resistance (immunity) and nutritional state. When teaching, ensure that different routes of transmission for different types of pathogens are mentioned (MEXT, 2017b, p. 213).

Since the upward trend in the cases of AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases and infections of those diseases among the youths has become a social issue, ensure that students understand the concept of such diseases and how they are transmitted. Students should also be able to understand the need to learn effective preventive methods to reduce the risk of infection. For example, since the pathogen of AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and its main transmission route is through sexual contact, be sure to mention that there are effective prevention measures, such as abstaining from sexual contact, and using condoms. (MEXT, 2017b, p. 213).

　It can be inferred that the learning objective is to understand the nature and causes of diseases, their transmission routes, and preventive measures. Viruses are mentioned alongside bacteria as examples of pathogens, suggesting that learning about viruses in this context, specifically their transmission routes and prevention, is one component of achieving this objective. However, none of the teaching materials explicitly state learning objectives related to viruses.

Perspective 2: Methods

　As it is clear from the description “[...], refer to [examples, such as] infectious gastroenteritis caused by norovirus, measles, and rubella, as appropriate” in (1), The Commentary on the Course of Study only mentions examples related to viruses and does not describe learning methods.

However, the following five methods were identified from the teaching materials.

The first is learning through practice questions. There were many fill-in-the-blank questions, such as the ones below, as well as other types of questions, including those that require students to pick the correct statement:

Choose the word that fits in the blanks to describe AIDS from options a to k and write the corresponding letter. 1. The official Japanese name for AIDS is (1) immunodeficiency syndrome, which is (2) caused by the pathogen HIV. 2. HIV is contained in blood, (3) and vaginal secretions of infected persons, and the transmission route is mostly limited to (4) if people avoid certain activities, such as sharing needles. 3. HIV infection weakens the function of (5) that resist diseases, resulting in (6) and cancer and other diseases. The condition is called AIDS. People can have (7) to determine whether they are infected by (4) HIV at a public health center. a. immunity, b. pneumonia, c. sexually transmitted disease, d. sexual contact, e. HIV antibody test, f. semen, g. acquired (Tomozoe et al., 2022, pp. 152-153).

The second is a discussion activity among students, as in the following example. Other activities included sharing ideas on how to reduce the risk of cancer and how to improve lifestyle habits: “Discuss how to prevent AIDS, using the references 3-5” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 139).

The third includes exercises in which students are asked to describe the characteristics of an infectious disease in comparison with other infectious diseases or to list practices they follow in daily life to maintain health, as illustrated in the following examples. “What way of living means a healthy life to you? Consider it from two perspectives - the person and the environment - and summarize your views in your own words” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 17).

The fourth is a thinking activity. Others included thinking about the prevention of infectious diseases, ways to eliminate discrimination and prejudice, and considering the causes of cancer and the measures to prevent it. “The document on the right shows the size of bacteria and viruses viewed when zooming in till we can see the fibers of a mask. It shows that the viruses are tiny enough to pass through the fibers of the mask. Now, let’s consider why we wear masks” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 137).

The fifth is a research activity. Others include asking students to investigate the causes of cancer, how to prevent or treat HIV, how to manage the Olympics and Paralympics, and how vaccinations work. “The transmission route varies depending on the pathogen. Moreover, the route is not necessarily limited to one: some types of disease are transmitted through more than one route. The typical example is norovirus. Then, how is norovirus transmitted? Let’s investigate” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 135).“Let’s examine the causes of cancer” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 97).

As seen above, although The Commentary on the Course of Study did not mention learning methods for viruses, the teaching materials referred to five primary methods.

Perspective 3: Contents

The Commentary on the Course of Study includes only the objectives mentioned earlier as learning content. That is, students are expected to learn that infectious diseases are caused by viruses entering the body as pathogens through various factors, that infection risks can be reduced through appropriate countermeasures, and the transmission routes and preventive measures. It also refers to specific viruses, such as norovirus and HIV.

However, the word “virus” is mentioned in a total of 309 contexts in the teaching materials, many of them with specific names: HIV (49%, 150), simply as “virus” (17%, 53), influenza (17%, 53), herpes simplex virus (6%, 32), norovirus (6%, 20), new type coronavirus (4%, 12), measles virus (2%, 6), rubella virus (2%, 5), HPV (2%, 5), dengue virus (1%, 3), and hepatitis virus (1%, 3). All publishers, particularly in first-year teaching materials, present viruses as a cause of disease, as illustrated in the following example. “Environmental factors include the physical environment, such as temperature and humidity; the chemical environment, such as toxic chemicals; the biological environment, such as viruses and bacteria; and the social environment, such as the human environment and health and medical institutions” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 5).

Teaching materials from all publishers list viruses alongside bacteria, insects, and other animals, grouping them together as causes within the biological environment. All publishers also design their second-year teaching materials to present viruses as a cause of cancer, as illustrated in the following sentences. “The main causes of cancer are lifestyle, bacteria, and viruses.” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 90), “The main cause of liver cancer is infection with the hepatitis B and C viruses. People who have a heavy drinking habit are also at risk of developing liver cancer.” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 80).

Two types of cancer were mentioned in relation to viruses: liver cancer (in three of the four publishers) and cervical cancer (in two of the four publishers). In addition, one textbook cited bacteria and viruses entering the body as a cause of stress (Toda et al., 2022, p. 38).

Third-year teaching materials are designed to have students learn about the morphology of viruses (e.g., micrographs and magnification), highly infectious environments and transmission routes, effects on the human immune system, incubation periods, main symptoms, prevention and treatment measures, infection levels in Japan and globally, past pandemics, examples of societal responses, and the research and development of systems and pharmaceuticals. “Rubella virus (approximately 56,000x)” (Mori et al., 2022, p. 153). “HIV often presents with very few symptoms, and the incubation period can be as long as ten years before it progresses to AIDS” (Tomozoe et al., 2022, p. 142). “Taking antiviral drugs and other measures (drugs may be less effective in some cases)” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 137).

AIDS is a disease of the immune system caused by a pathogen (virus) called HIV. HIV infection destroys some lymphocytes and gradually weakens the function of the immune system, making the patient more susceptible to various diseases, including infectious illnesses and cancer (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 138).

Once infected, Influenza viruses are usually thought to shed through the nose and throat for three to seven days from the day before symptoms develop. Therefore, it is necessary for the patient to refrain from going out during the period when the virus is discharged in order to prevent its transmission to other people (Toda et al., 2022, p. 149).

Vomiting and diarrhea caused by viral infections are thought to be common in summer, whereas infectious gastroenteritis caused by norovirus is more prevalent in winter. Since it is highly infectious, even a small amount of the virus in vomit or feces can be contagious (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 133).

In recent years, HIV prevention has become an urgent issue, with about 1,000 new HIV cases reported each year and a high incidence of HIV among people in their 20s and 30s. To prevent HIV infection, it is important to avoid direct contact with body fluids such as semen and blood of HIV-infected persons to cut off the transmission routes. Refraining from sexual contact, proper use of condoms, and avoiding contact with other people’s blood are all effective ways to reduce the risk of HIV infection. You will not be infected with HIV through normal daily activities. If you are concerned or suspect HIV infection, HIV testing and counseling are available anonymously and free of charge at public health centers nationwide. If people give in to their sexual urge and engage in sexual contact or carry anxiety about HIV infection even though there is no risk of HIV infection in daily activities, they will not lead a happy and healthy life (Toda et al., 2022, p. 155).

The teaching materials include detailed discussions of sexually transmitted diseases, including descriptions of treatment for condyloma acuminata, a disease caused by HPV, such as “surgical excision” (Ikeda et al., 2022, p. 137). In addition, AIDS caused by HIV is explained in detail, including its effects on the immune system—such as lymphocytes, which are not typically covered in junior high school science—as illustrated by the statement: “HIV infects and destroys CD4 lymphocytes” (Toda et al., 2022, p. 154). These examples demonstrate that sexually transmitted diseases are treated as a major topic in Health and Physical Education.

In summary, the analysis reveals that all four publishers address the topic extensively across all grades in their teaching materials, with no references to computer viruses. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), while none are explicitly stated in the teaching materials, The Commentary on the Course of Study includes guiding texts that position viruses within the biological environment and lists specific examples such as norovirus and HIV. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods), the teaching materials utilize five primary approaches, including practice questions, discussions, descriptive exercises, thinking activities regarding masks, and research activities. Regarding Perspective 3 (learning contents), 309 contexts mention viruses, with HIV being the most prevalent (49%), followed by influenza, norovirus, and others, spanning from causes of disease in the first year and cancer in the second year to detailed morphology and immune system effects in the third year.

Technology

In Technology, viruses were addressed in teaching materials from all three publishers and included in units related to biological cultivation. The term “virus” also appeared in units such as “Work Safety” (Takeno et al., 2022, p. 3), “Role of Technology” (Takeno et al., 2022, p. 13), “Learn About Information Security and Information Moral Education” (Nakamura et al., 2022a, p. 198), and “Basic Skills: IT Terminology Glossary” (Nakamura et al., 2022b, p. 38); however, these references pertain to computer viruses and were therefore excluded from the scope of this study.

In Home Economics, viruses were likewise addressed in teaching materials from all three publishers, appearing in units related to dietary practices, including “Cooking and Food Culture” (Ito et al., 2022b, p. 104), “Various Foods and How to Select Them” (Ōtake et al., 2022, p. 96), “Daily Food Cooking” (Ōtake et al., 2022, p. 106), and “Food Storage and Prevention of Food Poisoning” (Satō et al., 2022, p. 50). No references to computer viruses were found in the Home Economics textbooks.

Perspective 1: Objectives

There were no descriptions of learning objectives regarding viruses in the teaching materials, either for Technology or Home Economics.

Perspective 2: Methods

In Technology, two types of learning activities were identified in addition to those in the textbook: “Cultivation Practice” (Takeno et al., 2022, p. 114) for growing tulips and “Let’s Examine!: Name One Technology for Biological Cultivation and Consider Its Positive and Negative Aspects” (Taguchi et al., 2022, p. 131). No descriptions related to learning methods were found in the teaching materials for Home Economics.

Perspective 3: Contents

In Technology, the topic of viruses was mentioned in the context of plant diseases of crops and horticultural plants caused by viruses. “Potato aphids sometimes transmit viral diseases as they parasitize on plants” (Takeno et al., 2022, p. 129). “Plants are more susceptible to diseases caused by molds, bacteria, viruses, etc. when they are exposed to high temperatures, low temperatures, high humidity, and lack of sunlight” (Taguchi et al., 2022, p. 113).

Moreover, the following specific examples of coping methods and technological developments were mentioned. “Aphids: Remove aphids as soon as possible because they carry viral diseases. They suck juices from shoots, leaves, and stems” (Taguchi et al., 2022, p. 113). “Light-reflective tape: Highly effective against aphids that dislike the reflection of the sun. It also provides protection against viral diseases carried by aphids. Silver mulch film has a similar effect” (Takeno et al., 2022, p. 106).

There are technologies to remove disease-causing viruses and propagate seedlings of flowers and vegetables, to create natural properties through genetic engineering, and to propagate entities (clones) with genes identical to those of highly capable animals. Research and practical applications are underway in these fields (Taguchi et al., 2022, p. 131).

These five instances represent all the descriptions of the virus detected in this case; very little learning about viruses is covered in technology classes. In this subject, viruses are portrayed as harmful to organisms cultivated by humans, and the material is designed to teach methods and technological developments for their control and elimination. In Home Economics, the content addresses viruses as causes of food contamination and poisoning, as well as the social systems and individual measures for their prevention, as illustrated in the following example:

Various substances and organisms are contained in food, including food additives, genetically modified foods, pesticides, chemicals, contaminants, microorganisms, viruses, fertilizers, and feeds. The risk analyses of those substances are conducted through such a system. The effects of radioactive materials on food and health are also being assessed” (Ito et al., 2022b, p. 107).

Food poisoning is caused by bacteria (such as Campylobacter), viruses (such as norovirus), natural poisons (such as pufferfish poison), chemicals, and parasites (Ōtake et al., 2022, p. 104).

A number of diagrams and materials were provided as supplementary information. A typical example is the figure entitled “Major Food Poisoning, Causes and Prevention Methods” (Ito et al., 2022b, p. 111), which identifies bacteria and viruses as the primary causative agents of food poisoning. The materials also include photomicrographs showing the morphology of norovirus, alongside bacteria and parasites, with their magnification levels. The text explains the conditions under which bacteria multiply (without referring to viruses) and outlines precautions for food storage and preparation, without distinguishing between bacteria and viruses in terms of prevention. This approach is largely consistent across publishers: teaching materials describe the factors that promote bacterial growth and corresponding countermeasures without differentiating between bacteria and viruses. In some cases, the distinction is further blurred; for example, one section states that “food poisoning is caused by the proliferation of causative bacteria (Campylobacter, O157, etc.) and viruses on food” (Ōtake et al., 2022, p. 113). As viruses do not proliferate independently in food, such descriptions may lead readers to assume that bacteria and viruses multiply under the same conditions and can be prevented by the same methods.

As noted above, Home Economics textbooks include descriptions of viral morphology (e.g., micrographs and magnification), their role in food contamination and disease, relevant social prevention systems, and specific preventive measures at the individual level.

The analysis reveals that all three publishers address the topic within biological cultivation units in Technology and within dietary practice or food poisoning prevention units in Home Economics. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no learning objectives explicitly targeting biological viruses are specified in either subject. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods), Technology uses practical cultivation exercises and techno-social impact evaluations. Meanwhile, Home Economics outlines no specific learning methods. Regarding Perspective 3 (learning contents), Technology portrays viruses as agricultural pathogens, detailing five instances covering transmission by pests, preventive materials, and virus-free seedling technologies, whereas Home Economics addresses them as causative agents of food contamination, providing detailed data including viral morphology with micrographs and magnification, while frequently outlining bacterial growth conditions and countermeasures without distinguishing between bacteria and viruses.

Moral Education

The topic of viruses was mentioned in the unit for first-year students from one of the publishers, “Decided! The First Bone Marrow Bank Transplant” (Watanabe et al., 2022, p. 61), the unit for second-year students from one of the publishers, “International Humanitarian Assistance - What Kind of Work Is It?” (Suginaka et al., 2022, p. 107), the units for third-year students from three publishers, “Fukinotou [Japanese Butterbur]” (Hayashi et al., 2022, p. 106), “How to Distribute Vaccines?” (Yoshizawa et al., 2022, p. 174), and “Let’s Think About a Better Society” (Yoshizawa et al., 2022, p. 175). Although the unit for third-year students, “To Live in the Information Society” (Yokoyama et al., 2022, p. 156), mentioned the topic of viruses, it was related to computer viruses and was excluded from this study.

Perspective 1: Objectives

No virus-related objectives were noted.

Perspective 2: Methods

Regarding the learning methods, first, there were tasks—such as the example shown below—that required students to read the main text, use the provided information to grasp the sentiments of the characters and animals, and understand the stance of the government. “Let’s consider: What did Mr. Tanaka and Ms. Hashimoto confirm to each other by holding each other, shaking and gripping each other’s hands firmly?” (Watanabe et al., 2022, p. 65).

Second, as in the examples below, some of the teaching materials ask students to describe their thoughts based on what they read in the text or on the information presented.

What to do in a situation like this? - Vaccine Allocation (a hypothetical example) A new strain of influenza has broken out in a certain country. The country’s government wants to have the vaccine produced and the population vaccinated immediately to stop the spread of the disease and prevent people from becoming seriously ill. However, let’s suppose it is impossible to quickly mass-produce the vaccine, and it will take approximately six months for the manufacturing system to be in place. In addition, it will take around two weeks to acquire immunity after the vaccination. In this situation, who should be prioritized to receive the vaccine, which will be available in small amounts at a time? List A through G below in order of priority, and also think about the reasons (Yoshizawa et al., 2022, p. 175).

This example is designed as an activity in which students consider how to prioritize vaccinations. Specifically, students are asked to determine who should receive priority for vaccination in the event of a novel influenza pandemic in a fictional country, and to justify their decisions with reference to the government plan introduced earlier. Compared with activities that focus on interpreting characters’ feelings and thoughts, this task is more complex and requires a higher level of background knowledge. Without scientific understanding of the existence and characteristics of viruses, prioritizing vaccination becomes an extremely challenging task.

Perspective 3: Contents

　The term “virus” appears in explanatory notes for the following terms, such as “leukocytes” (Watanabe et al., 2022, p. 61) in first-year teaching materials, “clinical laboratory technician” (Suginaka et al., 2022, p. 107) in second-year teaching materials, and “Ebola hemorrhagic fever” (Nagata et al., 2022, p. 154) and “flu” (Hayashi et al., 2022, p. 107) in third-year teaching materials. In addition, the third-year unit “How Do We Distribute Vaccines?—The Case of Japan” (Yoshizawa et al., 2022, p. 174) includes a description of the government’s action plan for novel influenza and other infectious diseases. The subsequent unit, “Let’s Think About a Better Society” (Yoshizawa et al., 2022, p. 175), presents a learning activity in which students consider the prioritization of vaccine distribution during an outbreak of a novel influenza in a fictional country, drawing on the example of Japan. As shown above, Moral Education textbooks are designed to engage students with the topic of viruses from the first year onward through thought-based activities that require them to make judgments grounded in their understanding of various diseases.

The analysis of Moral Education textbooks reveals that references are included by one publisher in the first year, one in the second year, and three in the third year. Regarding Perspective 1 (learning objectives), no virus-related objectives are specified for the subject. Regarding Perspective 2 (learning methods), the teaching materials utilize two main approaches: reading tasks to grasp characters’ sentiments or government stances, and descriptive exercises that prompt students to consider complex societal dilemmas, such as establishing and justifying priorities for vaccine allocation during a fictional novel influenza pandemic. Regarding Perspective 3 (learning contents), the term “virus” appears within explanatory notes for medical and clinical terminology, including leukocytes, clinical laboratory technicians, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and flu, as well as within descriptions of national action plans for infectious diseases and vaccine distribution frameworks. Collectively, these findings indicate that the textbooks engage students with virus-related topics from the first year onward through structured, thought-based activities requiring socio-ethical judgments grounded in the contextual understanding of various diseases.

Summary of Virus Education in Japan’s Junior High Schools

To recap the characteristics of virus education in Japanese junior high schools identified in this study: excluding references to computer-related topics, students encounter viruses in Japanese, Social Studies, Science, Health and Physical Education and Moral Education (Breakdown: in the Commentary on the Curriculum Guidelines, the sections on Technology and Home Economics and on Health and Physical Education; in the teaching materials, as shown in Table 2, the subjects of Japanese, Social Studies, Science, Health and Physical Education, Technical Subjects [Technology and Home Economics], and Moral Education).

Table 2. References to biological viruses in teaching materials by school subject.

School year	Japanese		Social Studies			Mathematics	Science	Music	Art	Health and Physical Education	Technical Subjects		Foreign Languages	Moral Education
	Japanese	Calligraphy	Geography	History	Civics						Technology	Home Economics
1	×	×	○ 1/4	○ 5/8		×	×	×	×	○ 4/4	○ 3/3	○ 3/3	×	○ 1/7
2	×	×				×	○ 1/5	×	×	○ 4/4			×	○ 1/7
3	○ 1/4	×			○ 5/6	×	×			○ 4/4			×	○ 3/7
Note. Entries with a mention are marked with a ○, whereas those without are marked with an ×. Numbers in the table represent thepercentage of publishers that included content about viruses.

Learning objectives explicitly targeting viruses are not specified in any subject within the objectives sections of The Commentary on the Course of Study; however, within the explanations on the contents for Health and Physical Education, guiding texts establish that students should understand the concepts and causes of diseases, transmission routes, and preventive measures.

The study identified the following learning methods: Japanese—activities for evaluating textual content; Social Studies—learning through suggestions and recommendations (History, Civics), organizing and explaining information (Civics), and thinking activities (Geography, Civics); Science—exercises; Health and Physical Education—exercises, discussion, explanation, thinking activities, and research; Technology—cultivation practices and information organization; Moral Education—reading activities to grasp sentiments and descriptive exercises. Overall, many activities require students to organize and reflect on information. However, some approaches presuppose prior knowledge of viruses, such as evaluating textual content (Japanese), considering discrimination related to infectious diseases (Social Studies), and assessing vaccine prioritization policies (Moral Education).

With regard to learning content, the topic of viruses appears in the following contexts: in Japanese, the relationship between viruses and human life; in Social Studies, viral pandemics and medical incidents as drivers of changes in cities and society, as well as sources of ongoing prejudice and discrimination; in Science, as part of the function of white blood cells; in Health and Physical Education, as causes of infectious diseases and cancer, including viral morphology, transmission environments and routes, effects on the immune system, incubation periods, symptoms, prevention and treatment, patterns of infection in the past and present, and related social responses, systems, and pharmaceutical development; and in Technical Subjects (plant diseases and control technologies in Technology, and viral morphology, food contamination and poisoning in Home Economics). Overall, many sections address viral morphology, connections to the natural world, and relationships with human life and society.

However, viruses are consistently portrayed as harmful entities affecting humans, animals, plants, and society, with no discussion of their beneficial aspects. Moreover, most teaching materials focus on specific viruses, offering few opportunities to learn about viruses in general (e.g., definitions or classification). Because viruses are treated as pathogens, they are frequently presented alongside bacteria without clear distinction, which may lead to confusion between viruses and living organisms; in some cases, the descriptions further blur this distinction. This ambiguity is particularly pronounced when instructional materials lack substantive coverage of viral structure and mechanisms of reproduction.

Considering the interrelationship among learning objectives, methods, and content, this study found that although The Commentary on the Course of Study defines learning objectives only for Health and Physical Education, teaching materials in other subjects also address viruses despite the absence of formally defined objectives.

An analysis of curricular progression across school years shows that students first encounter viruses in Social Studies, Health and Physical Education, Technology, and Moral Education in the first year. However, in Science—where students are expected to study the human body and viruses in greater depth—only one second-year textbook from a single publisher includes the topic, while others omit it entirely. In addition, in Health and Physical Education, students are introduced to specific viruses in the second year but do not learn about their virological characteristics until the third year. As a result, students are required to engage with the topic of viruses in various contexts from the first year in Social Studies, Technology, and Moral Education without sufficient foundational understanding.

These findings indicate that there is no shared conceptual framework for viruses across subjects in Japanese junior high schools and no systematic, grade-based progression for teaching virology as an academic discipline.

DISCUSSION

This study aimed to clarify the characteristics of virus education in contemporary Japanese junior high schools from three perspectives—learning objectives, methods, and content—based on primary sources such as The Commentary on the Course of Study and school teaching materials. The following section compares these findings with previous studies of virus-related curricula in Japan. Based on a Health and Physical Education teaching plan, Uchiyama (1993) argued that aspects of humanity, society, and culture were omitted in AIDS education. In contrast, this study finds that these aspects have become central in contemporary school education in Japan. Araya (2022) analyzed how the COVID-19 pandemic was presented in slide materials used in Grades 3–5 in U.S. elementary schools, reporting that they addressed children, families, and communities while situating the topic within a scientific context. However, this study finds that in contemporary Japanese junior high schools, relationships between viruses and society or individuals are often addressed outside a scientific context and in subjects other than Science. Thus, this study reveals structural issues in the current virological curriculum that have not been identified in previous research.

Based on these results, the following question arises: How should education be approached in future revisions of the junior high school curriculum in Japan?” Three main issues can be identified.

First, learning objectives related to viruses are defined only in Health and Physical Education. While this subject emphasizes the effects of viruses on humans and the consequences of infection, it does not address the nature or characteristics of viruses themselves. In other words, the curriculum does not establish a foundation for understanding viruses before addressing their impacts. Moreover, other subjects—Japanese, Social Studies, Science, and Moral Education—refer to viruses despite the absence of standardized objectives or teaching guidelines. Given that viruses are inseparable from human life, their exclusion from the curriculum is neither feasible nor desirable. National guidelines should define learning content, methods, and expected competencies for virus education across subjects. In addition, students first encounter viruses in the first year in Social Studies, Health and Physical Education, Technology, and Moral Education. In Science, however, only one second-year textbook includes the topic. Even in Health and Physical Education, systematic study of specific viruses begins only in the third year. As a result, students engage with the topic before acquiring basic knowledge. This situation reflects the absence of subject-specific learning objectives. Educational researchers and MEXT should therefore consider how core concepts of viruses can be systematically structured across subjects and grade levels. However, under the current educational framework in Japan, students are frequently required to discuss the ethical and social aspects of infectious diseases in Moral Education or Social Studies before learning the foundational facts in Science. This lack of connection between subjects regarding the order of learning may make it difficult for students to fully comprehend the mechanisms of viral infection. To address this issue and ensure that social or ethical arguments are informed by basic scientific facts, a cross-disciplinary curriculum guide could be considered. For instance, Grade 1 Science could focus on the definitions of viruses and their differences from bacteria; Grade 2 Health and Physical Education could cover the immune system and transmission routes; and Grade 3 Social Studies and Moral Education could discuss historical pandemics and vaccine policies.

Second, although many activities require students to analyze and reflect on information, they do not necessarily promote deeper understanding beyond textbook content. Some methods also presuppose prior knowledge, such as considering discrimination in Social Studies or vaccine prioritization in Moral Education. There are three potential approaches: enhancing information delivery within existing subjects, ensuring foundational knowledge prior to practical activities, and integrating experimental sessions into activities to promote scientific inquiry. Science is best positioned to provide this foundation, given its links to concepts such as the definition of life, biological classification, and immunity.

Third, although many sections address relationships between viruses and human society or the natural world, there are few opportunities for students to learn about the fundamental concepts and properties of viruses. Coverage is largely limited to micrographs or brief notes distinguishing viruses from bacteria in Health and Physical Education teaching materials, and some descriptions even conflate viruses with organisms. The issue is not the timing of introduction, but the lack of conceptual grounding. The curriculum should ensure that students first understand what viruses are before examining their broader relationships. Strengthening the scientific treatment of viruses—particularly their definition and classification—in Science is therefore important. Furthermore, descriptions observed in textbooks outside the science curriculum—such as those that inadvertently blur the distinction between viruses and bacteria regarding how they proliferate—may reflect the independently segregated nature of the textbook authoring and screening processes in Japan. Textbooks are generally prepared within the framework of specific subject areas; thus, a systematic cross-checking of overlapping concepts across different disciplines is rarely expected to occur under the current system. To minimize such mixed messages in compulsory education, encouraging some form of cross-disciplinary dialogue or collaborative review between science experts and authors of other subject areas during the curriculum design or textbook preparation phases might be beneficial.

Furthermore, teaching materials tend to portray viruses only as harmful entities affecting humans, animals, plants, and society. This one-sided view may reinforce broader cultural perceptions. For example, children in Japan sometimes use the idea of “spreading a virus” in acts of exclusion, reflecting an assumption that viruses are inherently negative. A more balanced approach is desirable, presenting both negative and positive aspects of viruses. Specifically, it is worth incorporating their neutral and positive dimensions into the curriculum. As highlighted by prominent virologist Takemura (2021), pathogenic viruses causing human diseases comprise only a minor fraction of “environmental viruses”; the vast majority are non-pathogenic and ubiquitous globally. To foster a balanced understanding, several key examples from the scientific literature serve as viable candidates for educational materials suitable for junior high school students:

1. 1)   the utilization of bacteriophages in the food sector, such as treating processed meats to reduce Listeria contamination or spraying fresh-cut vegetables to reduce Salmonella contamination prior to packaging (Moye et al., 2018).
2. 2)   the indispensable role of viruses in biological evolution, evidenced by an ancient virus gene (the syncytin gene) that allows cells to fuse together to form the placenta, which is important for human placental development (Mi et al., 2000).
3. 3)   the resurgence of “phage therapy” as an alternative way to attack dangerous bacteria that have become resistant to antibiotics (Kortright et al., 2019);
4. 4)   the progress in cutting-edge medical applications, such as gene therapy that uses harmless, modified viral vectors as delivery vehicles to carry therapeutic genes into the body (Park et al., 2026).
5. 5)   and the breakthroughs in industrial engineering, including the synthesis of microscopic metallic nanowires within the internal cavity of the tobacco mosaic virus (Tsukamoto et al., 2007).

The presentation of both aspects would support scientific accuracy and greater balance in education. Excessive focus on the destructive nature of pathogens may inadvertently reinforce a narrow perception that links viruses solely to fear and exclusion, potentially affecting students’ perceptions of infected individuals in social contexts. The introduction of not only the negative impacts but also the wider roles of viruses, such as their evolutionary significance or diverse practical applications, is not merely a matter of scientific accuracy but could serve as a meaningful approach to mitigating unnecessary anxiety and fostering a more balanced, tolerant perspective among students in contemporary society.

AUTHOR’S NOTE

This paper incorporates and expands upon findings presented by the author at the 29th Biennial Conference of the Asian Association for Biology Education.

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•  Fujioka,  N.,  Okano,  T.,  Sakamoto,  T.,  Saraki,  Y.,  Takamori,  A.,  Tomioka,  K.,  Nishio,  K.,  Hattori,  T.,  Hamada,  K.,  Matsuura,  A. and  Yamashita,  E. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies: New History Textbook. Jiyusha, Tokyo.
•  Hashiba,  Y.,  Sakurai,  E.,  Ikeda,  Y.,  Itagaki,  A.,  Ichikawa,  D.,  Iwabuchi,  R.,  Ogura,  M.,  Kanegae,  H.,  Tanimoto,  A.,  Nagai,  N.,  Hashimoto,  Y.,  Muraki,  J.,  Morikawa,  T.,  Yoshizawa,  S.,  Watanabe,  M.,  Watanabe,  H.,  Kakinuma,  R.,  Kikuchi,  Y.,  Suzuki,  K., …  Takahashi,  T. (2022) Junior High School History: Japan and the World. Yamakawa Shuppansha, Tokyo.
•  Hayashi,  Y.,  Yaginuma,  R.,  Yasunaka,  M.,  Ikeda,  T.,  Ōhashi,  T.,  Kaida,  S.,  Kawana,  K.,  Koizumi,  H.,  Shimizu,  M.,  Shimomura,  Y.,  Suzuki,  K.,  Tsuda,  J.,  Nishino,  J.,  Nomoto,  R.,  Fukushima,  H.,  Hoshi,  M.,  Matsuzawa,  R.,  Mizukami,  T.,  Murao,  Y., …  Yoshitomi,  Y. (2022) Junior High School Moral Education 3: Leap into the future. Kyoiku Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Ikeda,  N.,  Ōtsu,  K.,  Inaba,  H.,  Uehara,  S.,  Ōya,  R.,  Katō,  N.,  Kamazuka,  Y.,  Karita,  K.,  Kikuchi,  K.,  Kodama,  M.,  Komiyama,  T.,  Saitō,  Y.,  Sakai,  K.,  Sakuma,  H.,  Satō,  K.,  Shirahata,  K.,  Takahashi,  K.,  Takizawa,  T.,  Tanaka,  S., …  Wakō,  R. (2022) Junior High School Health and Physical Education. Dainippon Tosho, Tokyo.
•  Ito,  T.,  Kawakami,  K.,  Iijima,  O.,  Takahashi,  K.,  Iijima,  T.,  Tanaka,  H.,  Ishii,  M.,  Nagao,  K.,  Isomae,  S.,  Nakayama,  S.,  Iwasaki,  M.,  Nitta,  H.,  Ōtsuki,  S.,  Fujii,  S.,  Okazaki,  H.,  Momochi,  A.,  Kamata,  T.,  Yagi,  H.,  Kobayashi,  K., …  Takagi,  A. (2022a) New Civics for Everyone. Ikuhosha, Tokyo.
• Ito, Y., Kawamura, M., Akiyama, K., Itō, K., Iwaki, K., Okada, M., Ogishima, C., Odake, S., Ono, Y., Kakino, N., Kasai, M., Katahira, R., Kaneko, K., Kamibeppu, K., Kanzawa, S., Kitamura, S., Kurokawa, K., Kozaki, M., Saitō, K., … Yoshida, H. (2022b) New - Technology/Home Economics, Home Economic Area: Creating Daily Life. Kyoiku Tosho, Tokyo.
•  Kajita,  T.,  Shingyoji,  C.,  Nagahara  Y.,  Nishihara,  H.,  Azuma,  K.,  Arai,  Y.,  Arao,  S.,  Iimuhashi,  T.,  Ioka,  Y.,  Izumi,  T.,  Irino,  T.,  Iwai,  H.,  Ueda,  T.,  Uemura,  T.,  Udagawa,  M.,  Ebisaki,  I.,  Enokiguchi,  H.,  Ōki,  S.,  Ōkubo,  H.,  …Watanabe,  N. (2022) New Science 2. Tokyo Shoseki, Tokyo.
•  Kushner , D. B. and  Pekosz,  A. (2021) Virology in the classroom: Current approaches and challenges to undergraduate- and graduate-level virology education. Annual Reviews of Virology 8: 537-558.
•  Kodama,  T.,  Ueyama,  T.,  Tandō,  H.,  Kitahara,  Y.,  Tajika,  J.,  Aizawa,  T.,  Andō,  H.,  Ikegaya,  Y.,  Ishii,  K.,  Itō,  U.,  Imai,  T.,  Iribe,  A.,  Iwasaki,  J.,  Udō,  Y.,  Onodera,  A.,  Kasai,  M.,  Katsumata,  A.,  Kabayama,  T.,  Kitahara,  H., …  Yoshida,  H. 　(2022) Words for Communications: Junior High School Japanese 2. Kyoiku Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Kortright , K. E.,  Chan , B. K.,  Koff , J. L. and  Turner , P. E. (2019) Phage Therapy: A Renewed Approach to Combat Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Cell Host Microbe 25(2): 219-232.
•  Koyama,  T.,  Andō,  Y.,  Saraki,  Y.,  Sawai,  N.,  Sugihara,  S.,  Takaike,  T.,  Toyoshima,  N.,  Hattori,  T.,  Miura,  K.,  Yoshinaga,  J. and  Watanabe,  M. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies New Civics Textbook. Jiyusha, Tokyo.
•  Kurushima,  N.,  Endō,  M.,  Ōsumi,  K.,  Ōtani,  M.,  Katō,  Y.,  Kamata,  S.,  Gotō,  K.,  Satō,  H.,  Shigematsu,  K.,  Tsukiashi,  T.,  Tsuchiya,  N.,  Toshino,  H.,  Nagao,  A.,  Nakano,  S.,  Nishikawa,  S.,  Nishiyama,  A.,  Fukawa,  S.,  Fujimoto,  M.,  Hori,  S., …  Yoshida,  H. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies - History: Opening the Future. Kyoiku Shuppan, Tokyo.
• Mi,  Mi, S.,  Lee,  X.,  Li , X. P.,  Veldman , G. M.,  Finnerty,  H.,  Racie,  L.,  LaVallie,  E.,  Tang , X. Y.,  Edouard,  P.,  Howes,  S.,  Keith , J. C.,  Jr. and  McCoy, J. M. (2000) Syncytin Is a Captive Retroviral Envelope Protein Involved in Human Placental Morphogenesis. Nature 403(6771): 785-789.
• Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2017a) The Commentary on the Course of Study for Junior High Schools: Technology/Home Economics.Kairyudo Publishing, Tokyo.
• Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2017b) The Commentary on the Course of Study for Junior High Schools: Health and Physical Education. Higashiyama Shobo, Kyoto.
•  Mizuuchi,  T.,  Noma,  T.,  Fujii,  J.,  Akiyama,  M.,  Asakawa,  T.,  Iokibe,  M.,  Ikeno,  N.,  Ida,  Y.,  Ichikawa,  N.,  Ichinose,  T.,  Itō,  N.,  Inoue,  M.,  Iwasaki,  N.,  Ōoka,  S.,  Ōnishi,  K.,  Ōba,  K.,  Okuyama,  K.,  Kakuda,  M.,  Kawakita,  M., …  Yoshida,  M. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies: Areas of Geography. Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Mori,  S.,  Saeki,  T.,  Okae,  M.,  Ueda,  S.,  Ōhashi,  Y.,  Okazaki,  K.,  Ogata,  M.,  Kaga,  M.,  Kasahara,  Y.,  Kiku,  K.,  Kizuka,  T.,  Kitō,  H.,  Kuroki,  T.,  Kondō,  M.,  Sami,  Y.,  Shimomura,  Y.,  Shinguryō,  T.,  Sugisaki,  K.,  Suketomo,  H., …  Yamanashi,  Y. (2022) Junior High School Health and Physical Education. Gakken Kyoiku Mirai, Tokyo.
•  Moye , Z. D.,  Woolston,  J. and  Sulakvelidze,  A. (2018) Bacteriophage Applications for Food Production and Processing. Viruses 10(4): 205.
•  Murofushi,  K.,  Yōrō,  M.,  Kitahara,  K.,  Maruyama,  S.,  Inada,  Y.,  Endō,  H.,  Okuda,  H.,  Katahira,  K.,  Kadoya,  S.,  Kaneko,  S.,  Kamijō,  T.,  Kawakami,  S.,  Kawasaki,  K.,  Konoshita,  H.,  Kudō,  S.,  Gotō,  K.,  Sakai,  T.,  Suzuki,  K.,  Sonobe,  Y., …  Yokoyama,  H. (2022) Exploration of Nature - Junior High School Science 2. Kyoiku Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Nagata,  S.,  Kudō,  B.,  Monai,  Y.,  Igarashi,  Y.,  Umeki,  H.,  Ōta,  K.,  Ōfusa,  Y.,  Okada,  T.,  Kashiwagi,  E.,  Kawakami,  T.,  Kobayashi,  T.,  Sasaki,  T.,  Sasaki,  T.,  Sawada,  K.,  Shōji,  H.,  Sugai,  M.,  Sugie,  Y.,  Takahara,  K.,  Tada,  M., …  Yoshida,  O. (2022) New - Moral Education for Junior High School Students: Door to Tomorrow 3, Gakken, Tokyo.
•  Nakamura,  Y.,  Furukawa,  M.,  Ōta,  T.,  Chōnan,  H.,  Izumida,  M.,  Ozaki,  M.,  Kawasaki,  T.,  Ajisawa,  H.,  Iizuka,  K.,  Ishizuka,  H.,  Ise,  H.,  Itō,  T.,  Ōkanda,  Y.,  Ōsato,  H.,  Ōtsuji,  T.,  Kajiwara,  M.,  Karasawa,  S.,  Kitai,  J.,  Kiragawa,  H., …  Yoshida,  K. (2022a) New - Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area: Creating Tomorrow - Technology Handbook. Kyoiku Tosho, Tokyo.
• Nakamura, Y., Furukawa, M., Ōta, T., Chōnan, H., Izumida, M., Ozaki, M., Kawasaki, T., Ajisawa, H., Iizuka, K., Ishizuka, H., Ise, H., Itō, T., Ōkanda, Y., Ōsato, H., Ōtsuji, T., Kajiwara, M., Ezawa, S., Kitai, J., Kitagawa, H., …Yoshida, K. (2022b) New - Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area: Creating Tomorrow. Kyoiku Tosho, Tokyo.
•  Narita,  K.,  Arai,  K.,  Shigematsu,  K.,  Inoue,  Y.,  Tameike,  Y.,  Uno,  S.,  Tsuchiya,  N.,  Ejima,  A.,  Nagao,  A.,  Ōtani,  M.,  Nakamoto,  J.,  Ōya,  Y.,  Fujimoto,  M.,  Katō,  Y.,  Furuya,  M.,  Kanai,  T.,  Maejima,  K.,  Kinjō,  K.,  Mitsumata,  G., …  Kon,  R. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies - Civics: Living Together. Kyoiku Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Noma,  T.,  Kuwabara,  T.,  Mizuyama,  M.,  Fujii,  J.,  Konagawa,  Y.,  Miyaguchi,  T.,  Mizuuchi,  T.,  Komeie,  T.,  Murayama,  Y.,  Sashi,  A.,  Mori,  K.,  Asakawa,  T.,  Satō,  K.,  Mori,  M.,  Iokibe,  M.,  Satō,  R.,  Yatabe,  R.,  Ikeno,  N.,  Sutō,  Y., …  Mieda,  A. (2022) Junior High School Social Studies - Civics Area. Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan, Osaka.
• Ōtake, M., Suzuki, M., Watahiki, T., Tsuruta, A., Takeno, H., Shioiri, M., Andō, S., Aoki, K., Akazawa, T., Asai, N., Asai, R., Asano, K., Abe, O., Abe, M., Amano, H., Arai, N., Andō, A., Iino, Y., Ikuta, H., … Watase, N. (2022) Technology/Home Economics, Home Economics Area. Kairyudo Publishing Co., Tokyo.
•  Ōya,  T.,  Kamata,  M.,  Ōsumi,  Y.,  Akiyoshi,  H.,  Abe,  O.,  Arai,  N.,  Ikeda,  Y.,  Ishikawa,  S.,  Izumi,  N.,  Itō,  A.,  Itonori,  S.,  Imamura,  T.,  Ueda,  A.,  Uenishi,  K.,  Uchiyama,  H.,  Mutsu,  K.,  Eguchi,  T.,  Endō,  E.,  Ōtani,  K., …  Wada,  E. (2022) Science Expanding into the Future 2. Shinko Shuppansha Keirinkan, Osaka.
• Park, K. S., Cho, Y. I., Mitragotri, S. and Zhao, Z. (2026) Viral vector-based gene therapies in the clinic: An update. Bioeng. Transl. Med. 11(1): e70106.
• Satō, F., Shimura, Y., Taguchi, H., Ayukawa, T., Igeta, Y., Ishimaru, C., Imai, E., Iwayama, Y., Ueno, A., Ōishi, K., Ōta, K., Ōmori, K., Ogawa, M., Kaneyasu, A., Kishi, N., Kirihara, M., Kurihara, E., Gōda, B., Koyano, S., … Watanabe, K. (2022) New Technology/Home Economics, Home Economic Area: Toward Independence and Harmonious Coexistence. Tokyo Shoseki, Tokyo.
•  Shimoda,  K.,  Morimoto,  S.,  Azuma,  T.,  Ishikawa,  K.,  Isozaki,  T.,  Itō,  H.,  Inagaki,  S.,  Iwaki,  K.,  Okiharu,  F.,  Kajiwara,  H.,  Kamata,  M.,  Kiryu,  T.,  Kubota,  Y.,  Kurita,  K.,  Kurihara,  J.,  Komori,  E.,  Satō,  M.,  Sugawara,  T.,  Takahashi,  S., …  Yamada,  T. (2022) Junior High School Science 2. Gakko Tosho, Tokyo.
• Simon, U. K. (2021) Teaching Virology at School: An Analysis of Student Knowledge, Textbooks, and Other Published Materials and a Summary of Essential Virology Knowledge for Teachers. In: Zeyer, A. and Kyburz-Graber, R. (eds.) Science Environment Health. Contributions from Science Education Research, pp. 263-285. Springer, Cham, Switzerland.
• Suginaka, K., Tanuma, S., Araki, K., Arahata, M., Oikawa, H., Katō, I., Kamijō, S., Sugano, Y., Sakurai, M., Shinkawa, Y., Takamasa, A., Tomioka, S., Negishi, H., Mizuto, N., Miyake, K., Yokohashi, K., Yodosawa, K., Watanabe, H., Kido, R., … Watanabe, Y. (2022) Junior High School Moral Education 2: Your Brightest Moments. Mitsumura Tosho Publishing, Tokyo.
•  Taguchi,  H.,  Satō,  F.,  Shimura,  Y.,  Akutsu,  K.,  Asada,  S.,  Abe,  J.,  Arai,  K.,  Araki,  Y.,  Arikawa,  M.,  Iguchi,  T.,  Ishii,  S.,  Itō,  F.,  Itō,  Y.,  Ōyama,  T.,  Okada,  K.,  Okamura,  Y.,  Okuyama,  T.,  Katayanagi,  Y.,  Kadota,  K., …  Yamamoto , T. (2022) New Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area: Technology That Creates the Future. Tokyo Shoseki, Tokyo.
• Takemura, M. (2021) Viruses whisper: A new virus theory for living in the future world. Shunjusha, Tokyo.
•  Takeno,  H.,  Shioiri,  M.,  Andō,  S.,  Ōtake,  M.,  Suzuki,  M.,  Watabiki,  T.,  Tsuruta,  A.,  Asamizu,  T.,  Akatsuka,  T.,  Amano,  S.,  Andō,  A.,  Ikeda,  A.,  Ishii,  K.,  Inoda,  N.,  Itagaki,  S.,  Ide,  K.,  Ide,  Y.,  Itō,  K.,  Itō,  Y., …  Watakabe , M. (2022) Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area. Kairyudo Shuppan, Tokyo.
•  Toda,  Y.,  Aibe,  Y.,  Amako,  H.,  Ayusawa,  M.,  Iwata,  H.,  Ōtomo,  S.,  Okade,  Y.,  Okahashi,  T.,  Kageyama,  T.,  Kataoka,  C.,  Kannari,  S.,  Kihara,  S.,  Kunikawa,  S.,  Kobayashi,  H.,  Sakashita,  R.,  Satō,  T.,  Satō,  Y.,  Sawai,  T.,  Shimizu,  S., …  Watanabe,  M. (2022) New Health and Physical Education. Tokyo Shoseki, Tokyo.
•  Tomozoe,  H.,  Etō,  T.,  Ishikawa,  Y.,  Imamura,  O.,  Imaseki,  T..,  Iwata,  Y.,  Ueji,  M.,  Gushiken,  K.,  Kondō,  T.,  Saitō,  M.,  Sugiyama,  Y.,  Takahashi,  H.,  Tasato,  C.,  Hino,  K.,  Fukushima,  M.,  Hosogoe,  J.,  Mizuno,  M.,  Miyashita,  M.,  Miyajima,  Y., …  Watanabe,  M. (2022) Latest Edition - Junior High School Health and Physical Education. Taishūkan Shoten, Tokyo.
•  Tsukamoto,  R.,  Muraoka,  M.,  Seki,  M.,  Tabata,  H. and  Yamashita,  I. (2007) Synthesis of CoPt and FePt₃ Nanowires Using the Central Channel of Tobacco Mosaic Virus as a Biotemplate. Chem. Mater. 19(10): 2389-2391.
•  Uchiyama,  G. (1993) Structural analysis and problems of the curriculum and teaching material for AIDS education: To break the spell from AIDS disease-like teaching materials. Journal of Education Practice and Research 12: 141-156.
•  Watanabe,  M.,  Oshitani,  Y.,  Sasaki,  T.,  Mutō,  T.,  Iijima,  N.,  Izumi,  T.,  Isobe,  T.,  Ebisawa,  H.,  Ōba,  M.,  Ogawa,  T.,  Ogino,  Y.,  Ozaki,  R.,  Kakinuma,  H.,  Kanemitsu,  Y.,  Kamoi,  M.,  Kariyazono,  A.,  Kisaki,  R.,  Kida,  K.,  Kido,  K., …  Wakita,  T. (2022) Newly Revised - New Moral Education 1. Tokyo Shoseki, Tokyo.
•  Yasui,  T.,  Iwamoto,  K.,  Endō,  S.,  Okuyama,  S.,  Kitsunezuka,  K.,  Kuroda,  T.,  Koishi,  T.,  Kobayashi,  T.,  Shinomiya,  M.,  Sugama,  M.,  Shūdō,  S.,  Seki,  M.,  Setoguchi,  S.,  Takashima,  M.,  Takahashi,  M.,  Chiba,  T.,  Torizuka,  Y.,  Toriyama,  T.,  Narasaki,  M., …  Wakaki,  K. (2022) Learning Together: Human History. Manabisha, Tokyo.
•  Yokoyama,  T.,  Shichijō,  M.,  Shibahara,  H.,  Asai,  A.,  Ikeda,  K.,  Ueda,  K.,  Okegawa,  K.,  Sakaguchi,  Y.,  Shibata,  Y.,  Tanabe,  S.,  Tsujino,  T.,  Osada,  S.,  Nariyama,  F.,  Nawa,  S.,  Fukuda,  T.,  Fujimura,  K.,  Murata,  S.,  Mōri,  T.,  Morioka,  K. and  Yada,  S. (2022) Moral Education for Junior High School Students: Developing Yourself 3. Akatsuki Kyoiku Tosho, Tokyo.
•  Yoshizawa,  Y.,  Ochi,  M.,  Shima,  T.,  Ui,  J.,  Ishikawa,  T.,  Ise,  Y.,  Uesu,  T.,  Uechi,  K.,  Egawa,  N.,  Ōuchi,  H.,  Ōta,  K.,  Okada,  Y.,  Kanō,  S.,  Kawano,  T.,  Kawano,  T.,  Komori,  G.,  Sawada,  K.,  Suzuki,  A.,  Takeda,  T., …  Watanabe,  M. (2022) Junior High School Moral Education: Living for Tomorrow 3. Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan, Osaka.

APPENDIX

Appendix 1:  Teaching materials examined (134 books)

This appendix presents the basic information on all the instructional materials analyzed in this study.

Subject Area	Subject	Title	Publisher
Japanese		Junior High School Japanese 1-3: Words for Communications	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Modern Japanese 1-3	Sanseido
		New Japanese 1-3	Tokyo Shoseki
		Japanese 1-3	Mitsumura Tosho Publishing
Mathematics		Junior High School Mathematics 1-3	Gakuto
		Junior High School Mathematics 1-3	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Mathematics 1-3: Expanding Into the Future	Shinko Shuppansha Keirinkan
		Mathematics for the Future 1-3: Develop and Apply Mathematical Thinking in Everyday Learning	Suken Shuppan
		The World of Mathematics 1-3	Dainippon Tosho
		New Mathematics 1-3	Tokyo Shoseki
		Junior High School Mathematics 1-3	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
Foreign Languages	English	SUNSHINE ENGLISH COURSE 1-3	Kairyudo Shuppan
		ONE WORLD English Course1-3	Kyoiku Shuppan
		BLUE SKY English Course 1-3	Shinko Shuppansha Keirinkan
		NEW CROWN English Series 1-3	Sanseido
		NEW HORIZON English Course 1-3	Tokyo Shoseki
		Here We Go! English Course 1-3	Mitsumura Tosho Publishing
Science		Junior High School Science 1-3	Gakuto
		Junior High School Science 1-3: Exploration of Nature	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Science Expanding into the Future 1-3	Shinko Shuppansha Keirinkan
		The World of Science 1-3	Dainippon Tosho
		New Science 1-3	Tokyo Shoseki
Social Studies	Geography	Junior High School Social Studies: Geography - Learn about the Regions	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Social Studies: Junior High School Geography - The Shape of the World and the Land of Japan	Teikoku Shoin
		New Social Studies: Geography	Tokyo Shoseki
		Junior High School Social Studies: Geographical Areas for Junior High School Social Studies	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
	History	Latest Edition - New Japanese History	Ikuhosha Publisher Inc.
		Junior High School Social Studies: History -Opening the Future	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Junior High School Social Studies: New History Textbook	Jiyusha
		Social Studies: History for Junior High School Students - Japan’s Progress and World Movements	Teikoku Shoin
		New Social Studies: History	Tokyo Shoseki
		Junior High School Social Studies: Historical Subjects	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Learning Together: Human History	Manabisha
		Junior High School History: Japan and the World	Yamakawa Shuppansha
	Civics	Latest Edition - New Civics for Everyone	Ikuhosha Publisher Inc.
		Junior High School Social Studies - Civics: Living Together	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Junior High School Social Studies: New Civics Textbooks	Jiyusha
		Social Studies: Civics for Junior High School Students - Toward a Better Society	Teikoku Shoin
		New Social Science: Civics	Tokyo Shoseki
		Junior High School Social Studies: Civic Subjects	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
Technical Subjects	Technology	Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area	Kairyudo Shuppan
		New - Technology/Home Economics, Technology Area: Creating Tomorrow	Kyoiku Tosho
		New - Technology/Home and Economics, Technology Area: Technology That Creates the Future	Tokyo Shoseki
	Home Economics	Technology/Home Economics, Home Economics Area.	Kairyudo Shuppan
		New - Technology/Home Economics, Home Economics Area: Creating Daily Life	Kyoiku Tosho
		New Technology/Home Economics, Home Economics Area: Toward Independence and Harmonious Coexistence	Tokyo Shoseki
Art		Art 1: Discovery and Creation	Kairyudo Shuppan
		Art 1: Encounter with Art	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Art 2, 3 Part 1: Experience and Expand the Learning	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Art 2 and 3, Part 2: Experience and Expand the Learning	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Art 1-3	Mitsumura Tosho Publishing
Music		Junior High School Music 1, 2, 3: Gifts of Music	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Music for Junior High School Students 1, 2, 3 Part 1, 2	Kyoiku Geijutsusha
Health and Physical Education		Junior High School Health and Physical Education	Gakken Kyoiku Mirai
		Latest Edition - Junior High School Health and Physical Education	Taishūkan Shoten
		Junior High School Health and Physical Education	Dainippon Tosho
		New Health and Physical Education	Tokyo Shoseki
Moral Education		Moral Education for Junior High School Students: Examining Yourself 1-3	Akatsuki Kyoiku Tosho
		Moral Education Notebook for Junior High School Students: Examining Yourself 1-3	Akatsuki Kyoiku Tosho
		New - Moral Education for Junior High School Students: Opening the Door to Tomorrow 1-3	Gakken Kyoiku Mirai
		Junior High School Moral Education 1-3: Leap Into the Future	Kyoiku Shuppan
		Moral Education Junior High School 1-3: Learning from How People Live Their Lives	Nihon Kyokasho
		Junior High School Moral Education: Living for Tomorrow 1-3	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Junior High School Moral Education: Living for Tomorrow 1-3 Moral Education Notebook	Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan
		Junior High Moral Education 1-3: Your Brightest Moments	Mitsumura Tosho Publishing