Articles
Influence of Hindu Spiritual Teachers on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) of Jon Kabat-Zinn:
Focusing on the Teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi
2022 年 12 巻 p. 1-18
詳細
2022 年 12 巻 p. 1-18
This study examines the elements from the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi that Jon Kabat-Zinn has incorporated in his Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). There is often a discussion on Buddhist roots of MBSR and mindfulness, however, the influence of Hindu spiritual teachers is not yet explored. Kabat-Zinn in one of his articles cites Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi, who had an impact on the formation of MBSR. Both Hindu spiritual teachers became known in the United States through the English translations of their teachings. They neither had strategies to promote their teachings, nor claimed worldly benefits of yoga and meditation. On the other hand, Kabat-Zinn strategically promoted yoga and meditation for health benefits. Despite such differences, certain ideological similarities can be found between Kabat-Zinn and both Hindu spiritual teachers. First, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Kabat-Zinn emphasize watching and witnessing the mind without judgment. Second, they explain the importance of consistent practice and patience. Furthermore, they suggest practicing a non-doing approach for the dissolvement of ‘I’ (ego) and effortless activity. Among the practices suggested by Sri Ramana Maharshi, Kabat-Zinn focuses on the self-inquiry practice and neti-neti approach. Self-inquiry practice means asking the question ‘Who am I?’ while meditating, and neti-neti means negating all the identities attached to oneself. Moreover, he asserts practicing meditation in daily life, which is found in Sri Ramana Maharshi’s books. In this way, both Hindu spiritual teachers contributed to the ideology and practice of MBSR.
Jon Kabat-Zinn (1944–) is one of the pioneers of the Mindfulness Movement in the United States. He designed a stress reduction program called Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR), in which he used hatha yoga, meditation, and other practices inspired by Buddhist and yogic traditions.1This program gained recognition in various fields, such as medicine, psychiatry, education, etc. With the development of this program, mindfulness, which was traditionally practiced as part of religion, is now used for stress reduction, to improve health, to increase productivity, and many other physical and mental benefits.
MBSR and mindfulness are primarily associated with Buddhism because the word ‘Mindfulness’ was first used in English translations of Buddhist texts, and the people, including Jon Kabat-Zinn are trained in Buddhism. There are many references to Buddhism in Kabat-Zinn’s work. He acknowledges that the roots of MBSR are in the Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions of Buddhism (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 289). The methods of MBSR are derived from the Theravāda-based meditation of Vipassanā (Insight meditation) and its approaches from Mahāyāna traditions (Husgafvel 2019).
Studies on MBSR and mindfulness can be classified into three types. First, clinical studies that prove its merits or demerits. Second is sociological studies that show its development or criticize its expansion. Third is the studies that explore its religious roots. This study is related to the third type. There is a wide range of studies that discuss mindfulness and its connection with various traditions and approaches of Buddhism. Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (Shonin et al. 2015) is a collection of papers that discuss Buddhist practices and teachings, such as Four Noble Truths, Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Samatha, Vipassanā, and their relationship with mindfulness. It also discusses how traditional mindfulness can be incorporated in clinical practices and research. Some studies discuss the Theravāda roots of mindfulness. Jeff Wilson (2014) explains that the development of mindfulness in the United States can be traced in the works of Theravāda Buddhist teachers, from Ledi Sayadaw (1846-1923), Mahāsi Sayadaw (1904–1982), Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994), Walpola Rahula (1907-1997) to the contributors of the Vipassanā movement.2 Another study by Robert H. Sharf (2016) discusses that the practice of “bare attention3” originated in Southeast Asia during the revival of Theravāda tradition is practiced in modern mindfulness.4 Sharf further gives a critical view that the modern mindfulness based on the technique of bare attention may not necessarily lead to long-term transformation.
For Mahāyāna roots of mindfulness, John Dunne (2011) aims to compare the non-dual approach of Mahāyāna Buddhism with MSBR. There are other studies that focus on the Mahāyāna roots of MBSR. Ville Husgafvel (2019) explains that MBSR has roots not only in Theravāda traditions, but also in Mahāyāna traditions of Buddhism. By analyzing Jon Kabat-Zinn’s Full Catastrophe Living published in 1990, Wherever You Go, There You Are published in 1994, and Coming to our senses published in 2005, he identifies that even though MBSR methods are based on Theravāda Buddhism, especially the Vipassanā movement, its philosophical foundations are based on Mahāyāna Buddhism, Zen/Sŏn/Thiền and Tibetan Dzogchen teachings.
Thus, there is often a discussion on Buddhist roots of MBSR and mindfulness. However, Kabat-Zinn (2011) in his article “Some reflections on the origins of MBSR, skillful means, and the trouble with maps” (p.289) acknowledges that MBSR has roots in certain currents from Yogic traditions. He mentions four teachers, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (1897-1981), Sri Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950), Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986), and Vimala Thakar (1921-2009). There are other Hindu spiritual teachers whose strategies are similar to the strategies used by Kabat-Zinn and MBSR promoters. This side of MBSR is not yet explored. Therefore, this study aims to identify the influence of Hindu spiritual teachers on Jon Kabat Zinn’s MBSR.
In the 34th Annual Conference of The Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, I presented about the impact of Swami Vivekananda and Maharishi Mahesh yogi on MBSR. I discussed the similarities and differences between the strategies they used to promote their ideologies. The Hindu spiritual teachers that Kabat-Zinn (2011) has cited can be classified into two. Teachers like Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi, who did not go to the United States, but became popular through the books that are compilations of their teachings in English, and teachers like Jiddu Krishnamurti and Vimala Thakar, who went to the United States and spread their teachings. Jiddu Krishnamurti was in fact initially associated with the Theosophical society.5 Vimala Thakar was inspired by Krishnamurti’s teachings. In this paper, there is no room to consider all Hindu spiritual teachers that Kabat-Zinn has cited. Therefore, I first focus on the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi. A part of their teachings is included in MBSR.
The analysis here is based on the books of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi, which became widely known in the United States. These books are the collection of their teachings and are translated into English by westerners. To understand the ideology of Kabat-Zinn, I analyze his books and articles on mindfulness and MBSR. In one of the interviews, Kabat-Zinn mentioned that the grounds of MBSR can be found in his books and articles (Husgafvel 2019: 4), therefore, they serve as the best source to examine his ideology. I identify the elements from Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj's and Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings that Kabat-Zinn has integrated in MBSR. I find out to what extent they resemble the ideologies and practices suggested by both Hindu spiritual teachers.
In the first section of the paper, I focus on Kabat-Zinn and formation of MBSR. Second section describes whether MBSR is a scientific and secular program. In the third section, I analyze the core teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and the part of his teachings that impacted Kabat-Zinn’s ideology. Fourth section explains the core teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi and how they are interpreted in MBSR. In the fifth section, with the help of a comparative chart, I present the similarities and differences between Kabat-Zinn and both Hindu spiritual teachers. The outcome of this study will examine how the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi have impacted MBSR.
Jon Kabat-Zinn was a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He completed his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology. From the young age, he was training in Buddhism and practicing hatha yoga. He was first exposed to Buddhism in 1966, and continued his meditation practice (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 286). There are many references of his formal training in Buddhism. When Kabat-Zinn was a student at MIT, he attended a talk given by Philip Kapleau (1912-2004), a Zen monk trained in the Sanbō Kyōdan sect of Japanese Zen. There are references of Philip Kapleau and his famous book The Three Pillars of Zen published in 1965 in Kabat-Zinn’s work, especially when he discusses Japanese Zen. Kabat-Zinn took formal training in Buddhism under Korean Zen master Seung Sahn (1927-2004) at Cambridge Zen Center (Brown 2016: 75; Kabat-Zinn 2011:286-287; Wilson 2014: 35). He also served as a director of the Cambridge Zen Center (Kabat-Zinn 2011:286-287). Kabat-Zinn cites many Zen teachers, including Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926-2022), a Vietnamese Zen master. He states that he was impressed by the simplicity of the book The Miracle of Mindfulness published in 1975 by Thích Nhất Hạnh (Kabat-Zinn 2011:282). The preface of his first book Full Catastrophe Living published in 1990 is written by Thích Nhất Hạnh. In this way, Kabat-Zinn had an impact of Zen teachers of different traditions. He considers the development of MBSR as his ‘karmic assignment', which came through his search, and he refers to that search as his ‘personal Kōan6’ (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 286).
Kabat-Zinn was associated with Insight Meditation Society (IMS), the organization founded by Sharon Salzberg (1952-), Jack Kornfield (1945-), and Joseph Goldstein (1945-). Salzberg, Kornfield, and Goldstein are trained in Asia with Buddhist teachers, especially of Theravāda traditions. IMS offers meditation retreats in which they mainly teach vipassanā meditation. Kabat-Zinn often attended such retreats. He was also teaching in IMS. In one of his papers, he mentions that he had a ten seconds ‘vision’ or flash during a ten days Vipassanā retreat of IMS. After a flood of thoughts, he had an idea of implementing dharma in a clinical environment, rather than focusing on its cultural or traditional aspects. He foresaw those cultural or traditional aspects of dharma as an unnecessary impediment for people who are suffering from stress, illnesses, and pain (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 287).
Regarding hatha yoga, he mentions in one of his articles that he met with hatha yoga in 1967, when a young Vietnam veteran did it as a warm-up in a Karate class at Boston (Kabat-Zinn 2003). There are almost no references of his formal training in hatha yoga, but in Full Catastrophe Living (1990), he mentions that he tried to learn it from yoga book (Kabat-Zinn 2013: 108). He saw hatha yoga has a great potential to improve pain and chronic illness. At that time, hatha yoga and meditation were separate practices. Kabat-Zinn combined both the practices, which resulted in mindful hatha yoga or mindful yoga. Kabat-Zinn mentions that he had a definite sense that the meditators would be benefited from paying more attention to their bodies, and the hatha yoga practitioners would be benefited from observing the arising and passing away of moment to moment sensations in mind and body in one sitting posture (Kabat-Zinn 2003). Mindful yoga consists of gentle stretching, strengthening, and balancing exercises that are done slowly and with moment to moment awareness of breathing and sensations in the body that arise from the postures (Kabat-Zinn 2013: 100). Kabat-Zinn considers mindful yoga as one of the meditation practices in MBSR.
With the background of Buddhism, hatha yoga and the vision or flash of thoughts in IMS retreat, Kabat-Zinn started a Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in 1979. He designed a stress reduction and relaxation program, which he later named as “Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR)” program.
MBSR is a program with intensive meditation training based on Vipassanā, Zen traditions and hatha yoga which are done with moment to moment attention on body and mind. It is an eight-week program that consists of 2.5-3.5 hours of classes, 7.5 hours of retreat and personal practice at home (Brown 2016: 80). The program provides systematic training that consists of mindful yoga, body scan7, mindful walking8, mindful eating9 and sitting meditations. Interactive sessions are also conducted in the classes. After every class, participants are given various exercises to do at home. They are also given CDs for meditation instructions. As per the curriculum of MBSR given by Kabat-Zinn, body scan is practiced in the first two weeks of MBSR. In the third and fourth week, body scan and mindful hatha yoga are practiced alternate days. In the fifth and sixth week, body scan is replaced with sitting meditation. The participants usually practice with CDs until the sixth week. In the week seven, participants are encouraged to practice body scan, mindful hatha yoga and sitting meditation for forty-five minutes without CDs. In the week eight, the participants are again asked to practice with CDs (Kabat-Zinn 2013: 159-165). There are two types of meditation techniques taught in MBSR. First is ‘Focused attention’ that is paying attention to an object, for example, breath. The other technique is ‘Open Monitoring’ that is moment to moment observation or monitoring without reacting (Chihara 2018: 4; Lutz et al. 2008:163).
Kabat-Zinn presents MBSR as a scientific and secular program, but does not deny its roots in Buddhism and yogic traditions. Kabat Zinn states that his purpose of taking mindfulness out of the religious context is not to exploit Buddhist or other religious practices, but to make them available for everyone who might not get acquainted with them if they are in the frame of religion. He calls it a ‘recontextualization’ (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 288) of the selective religious practices.
MBSR is promoted as a scientific program. The basic curriculum of MBSR is constant to examine its effect on the participants. The experiments are conducted in various fields, including neurology, psychology, psychiatry, etc. For example, neuroscientists of Harvard Medical School published a study that showed the changes in the brain after participating in MBSR. They used MR images to prove that mindfulness increases in regional brain gray matter density (Hölzel et al. 2011). With such scientific evidence, MBSR is promoted as a treatment or therapy that reduces stress, anxiety, pain, and claims that it is beneficial for various conditions, such as high blood pressure, skin disorders, sleep disorders, etc. Scientific results are published in books, journals, and media to reach professionals and common people. However, is MBSR a scientific program?
Practices of hatha yoga and meditation have been known for thousands of years, but when their effects are discovered and confirmed by science, they gain wide attention (Brazier 2016: 64). The physical and mental benefits, for example, improvement in health conditions, increase in productivity, etc., are common byproducts of meditation or mindfulness practices, but when they are confirmed by science, people get attracted. However, critics of MBSR question the accuracy and quality of scientific evidence due to conceptual and methodical issues, such as varied measuring parameters, methods of analysis, and subjects of research (Davidson and Kaszniak 2015). Such studies are less in number compared to the studies that show the benefits of MBSR and other mindfulness programs.
MBSR is promoted as a secular program. People from any religious background, or even with a no-religious background, can participate in MBSR. MBSR teachers usually avoid using religious vocabulary used in Buddhism and Hinduism during the program. Not only religious vocabulary, but also words like ‘spiritual’ are avoided, because they have various connotations that might be misleading in the fields of medicine, education, etc. (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 263-264).
However, Kabat-Zinn uses the word ‘dharma’. The word dharma is explicitly used in Buddhism and Hinduism. While using the word dharma, Kabat-Zinn mostly writes it with lower case “d” to show the universal character and applicability of dharma (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 300 n. 1). Traditionally, dharma is used in various contexts. It is used as laws, right behavior, and sometimes even as religion. Irrespective of its different contexts, it is used for the development of human beings. Writing it with lower case d or upper case d, the meaning that it conveys does not change. Also, it does not remove its religious ties. Kabat-Zinn might have used dharma several times to naturalize it in American society, like other words, Karma, Guru, Mantra, etc.
In the initial days of MBSR, when Kabat-Zinn gave lectures at medical centers, he prepared slides to explain how mindfulness meditation has little to do with Buddhism and religion. According to him, ‘Mindfulness has everything to do with wakefulness, compassion, and wisdom’, ‘these are universal qualities’ and ‘dharma points out the qualities of being human’ (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 283) that are not restricted to any religion. In short, Kabat-Zinn does not want to label mindfulness or MBSR as Buddhist or religious, but wants to use the values or ideologies that are developed in the eastern cultures. This leads to confusion, because on one hand, he uses the word dharma and explains the qualities that dharma practice brings, but on the other hand, he states that mindfulness is not Buddhist or religious.
When Buddhist scholars translated Pali and Sanskrit texts, the word mindfulness was used to translate the Pali word Sati. Sati comes from the Sanskrit word Smriti, which means ‘memory’ or ‘remembrance’. In Buddhist texts, Sati also denotes awareness, collectedness of Mind, absence from distraction (Goenka 2015), etc. The seventh step that is sammā-sati of the Noble Eightfold Path, is also translated as Right/Correct mindfulness. However, the meaning of the word has changed with time, to being attentive non-judgmentally to whatever is happening in the present moment. Kabat-Zinn chose the word mindfulness, and he refers to it as an ‘Umbrella term’ because it contains the multiplicity of the meaning and it can be skillful means10 for bringing the dharma and medicine together (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 288, 290).
He has not only changed the meaning, but also removed the values and nuances that come with the traditional meaning of the word. For example, if mindfulness is a translation of Sati (memory), it deals with bringing something from the past to the present. However, the new use of the word only deals with the present and immediate experience (Brazier 2016: 63). If the seventh step of the Nobel Eightfold Path is right mindfulness, there are six steps involved before reaching the seventh step. The new usage of mindfulness does not consider these steps. The multiplicity of the meaning and usage of the word has reached the level where the word mindfulness is attached with anything and everything that can be done with full attention, from mindful walking, mindful eating, to mindful driving, mindful sex. In this transition, the original meaning and nuance of the word have been lost.
The reason for marketing MBSR as secular and scientific practice lies in the social climate of the United States. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many westerners started taking interest in Asian religions. The western converts focused on meditation, and adopted the teachings that suit the western population. They kept rituals to a minimum and focused on the practical benefits of the practices. (Seager 1999: 137). Kabat-Zinn also removed the rituals and devotional aspects of the mindfulness practices. One step further, he associated mindfulness with science to validate its efficacy.
Kabat-Zinn states that he wanted to avoid a risk of MBSR being regarded as ‘new age,’ ‘eastern mysticism’ or just plain ‘flakey’ (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 282). In the 1960s and 70s, there were many Hindu and Buddhist religious leaders and spiritual movements active in the United States. Many Americans became their followers and adopted their teachings, but later these movements were considered mystical and cultic.
One of the best examples of such movements is the Transcendental Meditation (TM)11 movement. It played an important role in spreading meditation in the United States. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1918-2008) started the TM movement in the late 1950s. The strategies he used to promote TM are similar to the strategies used by Kabat-Zinn and promoters of MBSR. Maharishi made his teachings available to everyone. He encouraged the scientific research of TM to present it as a scientific and non-religious technique. He used TM for relaxation and other health benefits. He also developed hatha Yoga courses. Celebrities and elites of various professions were associated with TM. Maharishi was known as ‘Beatles Guru’ due to his association with the famous English band group ‘The Beatles’. Through educational organizations, he brought TM into the education field.
However, in the 1970s, the popularity of the TM movement started declining due to the ‘TM Sidhi program’. It is a companion program of TM technique where the practitioner meditates and listens to some sutras or verses which make him levitate and hope like a frog in crossed leg position (called as Yogic flying). It disappointed many TM followers (Goldberg 2010: 170). Maharishi always presented his teachings in scientific ways, but the flying power (siddhi) technique was based on Tantric practices (Goldberg 2010; Williamson 2010). The popularity of the TM movement started declining due to the mystic nature of the Sidhi program (Goldberg 2010; Wilson 2014). American media also portrayed it as a dark side of TM and Maharishi as a cult leader. Although TM was promoted as scientific, the religious and spiritual side was still prominent in it.
Kabat-Zinn and other mindfulness leaders were aware of these social situations in the United States (Kucinskas 2019: 43). They did not want to present mindfulness as cultic. MSBR does not include chanting or rituals. It does not focus on mystical or occult experiences that meditation practices bring. With the help of extensive scientific research, they drew people’s attention to the practical benefits of MBSR, rather than its roots or connections with religion. Being aware of American culture and society, he changed the ways of promoting mindfulness.
However, the religious ties of MBSR cannot be removed. Even if scientific evidence is provided, even if religious words and practices are substituted, MBSR provides a worldview or reveals the facts and laws that are part of religion. Practices such as meditation, contemplation, self-inquiry that are used in MBSR are the practices followed in Buddhism and other religions for thousands of years. They ultimately aim for self-realization, but removing their original purpose or removing their connection with religion creates a contradiction.
The question arises whether MBSR and mindfulness can be separated from religion. Brown addresses the question by discussing definitions of religion, spiritual and secular, and analyzing tactics that secular mindfulness promoters used to promote MBSR and mindfulness-related programs. She concludes, “Mindfulness might be understood as secular if one reduces religion to rhetoric and secularity to this-worldly effects. However, if one means by secular the absence of religious and spiritual beliefs and practices, this is harder to make” (Brown 2016: 90-91). One can present MBSR as a secular and non-religious program, but it does not mean that the ideology taught in it has no connection with any religion.
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj was born in 1897 in a Maharashtrian family as Maruti Kambli. According to the material available on his life and journey, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj did not have spiritual experience or Guru until his middle age. He was a shopkeeper and looked after his family as a common man. He met his Guru Sri Siddharameshwar Maharaj (1888-1936) in 1933. Sri Siddharameshwar Maharaj, a sage from Navanath Sampradaya12, gave him a Mantra and meditation instructions, which awakened something within him. When asked about Sri Siddharameshwar Maharaj, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj said, “I trusted my Guru. What he told me to do, I did. He told me to concentrate on ‘I am’ — I did…I gave him my heart and soul, my entire attention, and the whole of my spare time.... As a result of faith and earnest application, I realized my self (swarupa) within three years” (Nisargadatta 1992: 52). After the death of Sri Siddharameshwar Maharaj, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj renounced his family and business. He made pilgrimages to many sacred places across India, and later returned to Mumbai. His interpretations of the absolute truth are from his own experiences. They serve as guidelines for the seekers.
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj did not travel out of India, but became known to the world through an English book “I am That”, which was first published in 1973. The book is a compilation and translation of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s answers to his followers' questions. The question answers are in Marathi, and they were recorded in audiotapes. The audiotapes were translated into English by Maurice Frydman (1901-1976). Maurice Frydman was an engineer by profession. He was associated with many well-known figures in India. He was a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi and lived in his ashram. He was influenced by Sri Ramana Maharshi and J. Krishnamurti. He was also associated with Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj referred to him as a friend. Maurice Frydman mentioned in the book that he was impressed with the spontaneous simplicity of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s appearance and behavior, and his deep and genuine earnestness in expounding his experience (Nisargadatta 1992). He summarized the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj at the end of the book as Nisarga (Natural) Yoga.
The book became a bestseller and was translated into several Indian and European languages. The title of the Hindi book is ‘Aham Brahmasmi', which means ‘I am Brahman’. The title ‘I am That’ denotes the same. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s teachings suggest not to get attached to ‘this’ and ‘that’ (body, mind, worldly things, etc.). The word ‘That’ in ‘I am That’ does not refer to worldly things, but to the Brahman (absolute).13
The way Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj showed to become one with the absolute is by contemplating or dwelling on ‘I am’. According to Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, Atman (the self) is devoid of all attachments, whether to the body, human beings, possessions, and many other things. The attachments are impediments for understanding the true nature. When one lets go of all the identities and attachments to worldly things, what remains is ‘I am', which is free from bondage. ‘I am’ does not mean focusing on the ‘I’. It means focusing on the ‘being’ and realizing who one is. Even ‘I am’ is not ultimate. When one attains pure awareness, ‘I am’ does not remain. Thus, when one becomes one with the Brahman (absolute), which is beyond the words and experiences, nothing remains. The absolute cannot be attained, or one cannot reach to the absolute, it is already present. Through Sadhana (practice), one can realize that is already present. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj was devoted to his Guru, Sri Siddharameshwar Maharaj. His teachings include devotion to the Guru, not only to a human Guru, but also to the inner self, which acts as a Guru on the path of realization.
4.2 Influence on Kabat-Zinn and MBSRTo examine the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, I focus on the book I am That (1973). Kabat-Zinn has referred to this book in his writings. He has quoted some lines from the book in the workbook of MBSR (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 300). I discuss the reason why he has included those lines in the workbook of MBSR. The ‘non-doing’ approach suggested by Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Kabat-Zinn is also analyzed in this section.
Kabat-Zinn (2011) explains the journey of creating MBSR. At the end of the paper, he quotes some lines from the book I am that published in1973. He also mentions that those lines are quoted on the last page of the MBSR workbook (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 300). The quote is as follows.
“…by watching yourself in your daily life with alert interest with the intention to understand rather than to judge, in full acceptance of whatever may emerge, because it is here, you encourage the deep to come to the surface and enrich your life and consciousness with its captive energies. This is the great work of awareness; it removes obstacles and releases energies by understanding the nature of life and mind. Intelligence is the door to freedom and alert attention is the mother of intelligence” (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 300; Nisargadatta 1992: 278).
The lines that Kabat-Zinn has quoted are stated by Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj as an answer to the question “How can I set right a tangle which is entirely below the level of my consciousness?” (Nisargadatta1992: 278). It does not have any background or link with the previous and further questions. The reason Kabat-Zinn has quoted these lines in the workbook of MBSR is because they convey the same meaning that he wants to convey through mindfulness. Kabat-Zinn’s practice of mindfulness also gives importance to watching oneself without judging, and the awareness created by it.
However, Kabat-Zinn has omitted the first part of the quote. The actual quote of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj starts with the words, “By being with yourself, the ‘I am’;…”. Kabat-Zinn must have omitted this part, because it conveys to dwell on ‘I am’, the core teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj. Kabat-Zinn has focused only on the part that is relevant to his definition of mindfulness.
In some sections of I am that published in 1973, translator Maurice Frydman uses the word ‘Mindfulness’ a few times when Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj speaks about self-awareness and awareness of the mind. Mindfulness denotes the ‘total awareness’ of oneself and one’s mind (Nisargadatta 1992: 219, 324). One has to simply watch, witness, or be attentive to whatever comes. One does not have to react to it. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s teachings include awareness of oneself by watching or witnessing the mind and whatever comes in the mind. Kabat-Zinn uses similar words while giving instructions of meditation, “…Practice being completely open and receptive to whatever comes into the field of awareness, letting it all come and go, watching, witnessing, attending in stillness” (Kabat-Zinn 2013: 74). It is difficult to trace the reason why Maurice Frydman used the word mindfulness for witnessing and watching, but the context of the word matches with Kabat-Zinn’s definition of mindfulness.
According to Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, Man is not the doer. When the sense of ‘I’ is dissolved, sadhana (practice) becomes effortless. Things just happen, and there is no sense of doing or doer (Nisargadatta 1992: 480-483). Kabat-Zinn also writes about the non-doing approach. It does not mean doing nothing, but it means effortless activity. Effortless activity happens when one lets things be and allows them to unfold in their own way. In such activities, there is no sense of ‘I’ ‘me’ or ‘mine’ (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 40, 44). According to Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, Gnani14 is a non-doer, and God does everything for him. But he negates that God is a doer, as things simply happen by their nature (Nisargadatta 1992: 87). Kabat-Zinn does not explain in the same way, but he discusses the effortlessness and dissolvement of ‘I’ that comes from non-doing (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 40, 44).
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj speaks about patience and practice. He states, “The mind will rebel in the beginning, but with patience and perseverance it will yield and keep quiet” (Nisargadatta 1992: 18). For Kabat-Zinn, “Patience can be a particularly helpful quality to invoke when the mind is agitated” (Kabat-Zinn 2013: 23-24). Patience is one of the major attitudes taught in MBSR. While speaking about how to keep the mind steady, both give importance to patience to calm the mind.
The core teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Kabat-Zinn’s mindfulness are not the same. However, Kabat-Zinn has extracted some part of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s teachings, and applied it in MBSR.
Sri Ramana Maharshi was born in Tiruchuli, Tamil Nadu, in 1879. When he was sixteen years old, he suddenly had an extreme fear of death, followed by an experience of death. This was awakening for him, that he is not body and mind. After his awakening, he went to Arunachal hill, a sacred hill in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu. He lived there for several decades until his death in 1950. His charisma attracted people. One of them named him ‘Bhagvan Sri Ramana Maharshi’. Initially, Sri Ramana Maharshi did not speak in front of his followers. He transmitted his knowledge in silence, but later he started giving verbal instructions. Sri Ramana Maharshi did not receive formal training from any Guru. His teachings come from his own experiences. He lived a simple life and was always available for people.
Sri Ramana Maharshi spent most of his life in Arunachal Hill. He never went out of India, but he reached western countries through English translations of his teachings. His followers compiled his teachings and translated them into English. There are many books on Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings. He got first known to the west through the famous book A Search in Secret India published by Paul Brunton (1898-1981) in 1934. Brunton is a British author who met Ramana Maharshi in 1931 and wrote about his experience with him in his book. Many of Sri Ramana Maharshi’s western disciples collected his teachings and translated them into English. Two of them are Arthur Osborne (1906-1970) and David Godman (1953-). Both are British. They became disciples of Sri Ramana Maharshi. Osborne is the first editor of the Journal called ‘Mountain Path', which is published by Ramanasramam.15 He compiled Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings and published a book The Collected Works of Sri Ramana Maharshi published in 1959 (Maharshi 2013). Godman was also working in Ramanasramam. He has been translating Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings for many years. He is the author or editor of sixteen books on Ramana Maharshi. One of his books is Be as You Are published in 1985 (Maharshi 2017).
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi have similarities in their teachings. Sri Ramana Maharshi also taught that the self is pure and devoid of attachments. When one lets go of the sense of ‘I am this’ and ‘I am that’, what remains is the pure being ‘I am’. However, the ‘I’ thought (ego or aham-vritti) becomes an impediment and keeps one away from realizing the true nature of the self. He suggested two ways. The first way is self-surrender, where one surrenders to God or Guru. Surrender means dropping all the desires and wills and acting according to God or Guru. This method removes the ego that is the ‘I’ thought. This method sounds simple, but difficult to implement, as the mind is usually clung to ‘I thought’. Ramana Maharshi suggested a devotional way, that is by chanting God’s name or visualizing him. With constant practice of this, the ‘I thought’ is reduced.
Another way Sri Ramana Maharshi suggested is the practice of self-inquiry. In this practice, Sri Ramana Maharshi taught to focus on ‘I’ and dwell on that feeling. If any thoughts come, take the attention back to the ‘I’. This ‘I’ does not mean ‘mine’ or ‘me', but once existence or being. To deepen the practice, he suggested asking the questions, such as ‘Who am I?’, ‘Where does this I come from?’. By continuously practicing this, one can emerge in the ‘I’, and this state of being removes mental tendencies (vasana). Sri Ramana Maharshi never suggested renouncing daily activities and sitting long hours in meditation. Though he gave ultimate importance to practice, he suggested continuing it while doing daily activities.
5.2 Influence on Kabat-Zinn and MBSRTo examine the teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi, I focus on The Collected Works of Sri Ramana Maharshi (Maharshi 2013), as Kabat-Zinn has cited it in his work. I also refer to Be as You Are (Maharshi 2017), as it is a collection of Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings and to explore other aspects of his teachings. Self-inquiry is one of the core teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi. It is also used in MBSR. This section deals with the self-inquiry practice and other elements of Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings that are included in MBSR.
The self-inquiry practice suggested by Sri Ramana Maharshi is asking the question ‘Who am I?’. In The Collected Works of Sri Ramana Maharshi (Maharshi 2013), Sri Ramana Maharshi uses the neti-neti approach to explain ‘Who am I?’. Neti-neti is to negate the identities attached to oneself. Sri Ramana Maharshi explains that I am not the seven dhatus (humours), I am not the five senses, I am not the five sense organs, I am not mind. He asks if I am not these, then ‘Who am I?’ (Maharshi 2013).
Kabat-Zinn also suggests asking the question ‘Who am I?’. He refers to it as an inquiry. He uses the neti-neti approach for inquiry. However, the object of negation for Kabat-Zinn is not mind, body or senses, as suggested by Sri Ramana Maharshi. To reach the question ‘Who am I?’, Kabat-Zinn negates the mental and physical problems. For example, ‘I am not my pain,’ ‘I am not my anxiety,’ ‘I am not my cancer', and if I am not all these, then ‘Who am I?’ (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 299). Since MBSR is used in clinical settings, mental and physical problems are relatable to the participants. Even if the object of negation is different, the question is the same. However, the context of the question seems different from the context of the self-inquiry practice suggested by Sri Ramana Maharshi. By negating the bondage of senses, organs, body, mind, awareness is created. This awareness is the realization of self. Whereas, Kabat-Zinn does not suggest getting free from the bondage of body, mind. His purpose is to create awareness on the level where participants can get rid of pain, diseases, and illnesses.
The inquiry practice in MBSR is not limited to the question ‘Who am I?’. Kabat-Zinn also suggests meditating or contemplating on other questions, such as ‘What is my Way?’, ‘Where am I going?’, ‘What path I am on?’ ‘Is this the right direction for me?’ etc. (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 132). These questions are different from ‘Who am I?’. The practice of ‘Who am I?’ is to realize one’s true nature, while questions like ‘What is my Way?’, ‘Where am I going?’ seem to have a concern with ‘I’. Kabat-Zinn emphasizes on the question ‘What is my Way?’ which according to him leads to the change in understanding. This approach that is concerned with one’s own experience or bringing change in one’s lifestyle is questioned by some critics of mindfulness (Brazier 2016; Carrette and King 2005; Purser 2019). On one hand, Kabat-Zinn suggests getting rid of ‘I’ ‘me’ ‘mine’ that is a product of our thinking (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 236). On the other hand, he suggests contemplating on ‘my way’, ‘my path', which is confusing. This identity approach differs from the approach of Sri Ramana Maharshi, because Sri Ramana Maharshi’s approach is to lose all identities. From this perspective, the other questions added by Kabat-Zinn in the inquiry practice lessen the significance of the question ‘Who am I?’.
Sri Ramana Maharshi suggests not to get an answer for the question ‘Who am I?’. One simply experiences the state that comes out of such inquiry (Maharshi 2017: 70). Kabat-Zinn also does not seek any answers for the inquiry. Kabat-Zinn writes that the intention of this type of inquiry is not knowing. It is not performing or analyzing, but merely relaxing in the not knowing state (Kabat-Zinn 2005: 133). This is because the mind constantly gets involved in finding the answer or solution to these questions. The knowledge acquired by the mind has limitations. This part is common in the approach of Sri Ramana Maharshi and Kabat-Zinn.
The practices suggested by Sri Ramana Maharshi and Kabat-Zinn are to be done not only as meditation, but also as part of daily activities. In the self-inquiry practice, to reach the question ‘Who am I?’, Kabat-Zinn changes the objects of negation, and instead, he uses the pain, diseases that are relevant in MBSR. He also does not limit the inquiry practice to ‘Who am I?’. Despite such changes, ultimately, he reaches to the not knowing the answers. According to him, this phenomenon cannot be explained by words, but completely depends on the experience.
In this section, I compare Kabat-Zinn’s ideology, practice, promotion of MBSR, and its criticism with Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj's and Ramana Maharshi’s ideology, practice, promotion of teachings, and criticism with the help of Table 1.
The teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi are based on Advaita-Vedanta. In the 1930s, Paul Brunton (1898-1981) brought Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings to the west through his book A Search in Secret India published in 1934. Sri Ramana Maharshi’s teachings were further promoted by Arthur Osborne (1906-1970) and David Godman (1953-). From the 1970s, Ramana Maharshi's teachings were popularized by H. W. L. Poonja (1910-1997), commonly known as Papaji and his students. His students started the “Neo-Advaita” or “Satsang” movement16 in the United States. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s teachings were popularized by Maurice Frydman through his book I am that (1973). Since Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj’s teachings share similarities with the teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi, he is also considered as part of “Neo-Advaita”. Both Hindu spiritual teachers never claimed their teachings as “Neo-Advaita”, but many modern Advaita teachers in the west claim to have been influenced to some degree by them (Lucas 2014: 7) and they categorized their teachings as “Neo-Advaita”. Kabat-Zinn’s ideology is a combination of Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions of Buddhism, hatha yoga, and the teachings of Hindu spiritual teachers.
As explained in the previous sections, the practice Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj suggested is contemplation or dwelling on ‘I am’. It is to remove ego and to become one with the absolute. The practice Sri Ramana Maharshi suggested is either self-surrender or self-inquiry with ‘who am I?’. It is to remove ego and to become one with the absolute. Kabat-Zinn designed MBSR in which Mindful hatha yoga, and various other meditations are used. Self-inquiry practice is also a part of MBSR.
| Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj | Sri Ramana Maharshi | Jon Kabat-Zinn | |
| Primary Ideology | Advaita-Vedanta (Non-dualistic approach) | Advaita-Vedanta (Non-dualistic approach) | Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions of Buddhism, hatha yoga, and teachings of Hindu spiritual teachers. |
| Practice | Contemplation or dwelling on ‘I am’ to remove ego and to become one with the absolute. | Self-surrender and self-inquiry with ‘who am I?’ to remove ego and to become one with the absolute. | Mindful hatha yoga, Meditations based on Vipassanā, Zen, self- inquiry. |
| Teachings are available to everyone. | Teachings are available to everyone. | MBSR is available to everyone. | |
| Promotion | No Institution for health. | No Institution for health. | Opened a Stress reduction clinic. |
| He himself did not have an agenda to promote the teachings, but his disciples promoted his teachings in the west. | He himself did not have an agenda to promote the teachings, but his disciples promoted his teachings in the west. | Appeared on TV, news, wrote articles, papers on mindfulness. | |
| Health benefits were not the primary purpose of meditation. | Health benefits were not the primary purpose of meditation. | MBSR is a program that reduces mental and physical stress. | |
| No scientific research was promoted. | No scientific research was promoted. | Scientific research on MBSR is encouraged. | |
| Criticism | Promoters of his teachings received criticism in the west for cutting off the important aspect of Advaita; For example, lack of deep knowledge or experience, omitting practices, etc. (Lucas 2014: 10). | Promoters of his teachings received criticism in the west for cutting off the important aspect of Advaita; For example, lack of deep knowledge or experience, omitting practices, etc. (Lucas 2014: 10). | MBSR is criticized for cutting off the important aspects of religious practices. It is also criticized for the commodification and capitalization of religious practices. |
Source: Author
The practices suggested by Kabat-Zinn, Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, and Sri Ramana Maharshi are available for everyone.
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi did not have any strategies to promote their teachings. However, their disciples promoted their teachings in the west through books, lectures, etc. Kabat-Zinn and promoters of MBSR had strategies to promote MBSR. They promoted MBSR as a scientific and secular program. They appeared on TV and wrote articles and papers about the efficacy of MBSR. Their primary purpose of mindfulness practice is for health benefits. These strategies are similar to the strategies used by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi for the promotion of TM.
The neo-Advaita movement developed from the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi received criticism for cutting off the important aspect of Advaita; For example, lack of deep knowledge or experience, and moral development for spiritual realization, omitting sadhana etc. (Lucas 2014: 10-15) Similarly, MBSR is criticized for cutting off the important aspects of religious practices. It is also criticized for the commodification and capitalization of religious practices.
Mindfulness is primarily associated with Buddhism. However, the thoughts, ideologies behind mindfulness, and especially MBSR, are also found in the teachings of Hindu spiritual teachers. In this paper, I focused on the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi. I discussed the similarities and differences between their and Kabat-Zinn’s ideologies and approaches.
Kabat-Zinn states that the roots of MBSR are in yogic traditions, but he does not refer to ancient scriptures of Yoga. He cites teachers like Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Sri Ramana Maharshi, whose teachings are based on Advaita Vedanta, and who became known in the United States through the English translations of their teachings. Therefore, it is appropriate to say that MBSR has roots in the teachings of Hindu spiritual teachers, especially those who became popular in the United States.
The practices suggested by Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj Ramana Maharshi are for self-realization. Whereas, the practices suggested by Kabat-Zinn, including inquiry practice and meditation, are for the realizations in daily activities and reducing mental and physical tensions in daily life. Continuing those practices might open new avenues or deep realizations, but on a general level, and especially, in the fields of medicine and health care, the primary approach or purpose is to take people out of their problems and show them different ways to cope with those problems. MBSR does not focus on devotion, surrender, faith, and many such aspects that are part of the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Ramana Maharshi.
Research on MBSR has created scientific evidence that claims its benefits. When Kabat-Zinn started the stress reduction clinic, scientific research on meditation was growing. With the advancement in such research and experimentation with meditation, scientific data was produced. It was used to market MBSR as a scientific practice. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Ramana Maharshi did not make an effort to authenticate and validate their teachings in society. They did not market their teachings; rather, people were attracted to them to gain knowledge of life.
This paper has attempted to explore the side of MBSR, which is less discussed. It further explored Kabat-Zinn’s approach in integrating the teachings of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj and Ramana Maharshi into MBSR. It has provided insight into the commonalities in their ideologies. However, the scope of this study is limited to two Hindu spiritual teachers and only a few aspects of their teachings. Clearly, further research is necessary to cover other Hindu spiritual teachers that Kabat-Zinn has cited and their impact on MBSR. It is necessary to consider every aspect of their teachings that Kabat-Zinn has included in the MBSR. In addition, a further investigation is necessary to understand how they have affected MBSR compared to Buddhist teachings.
1 The word “Yogic” is found in the works of Vimala Thakar, J. Krishnamurti, and in the translated works of Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj to describe the practices, exercises and terms related to the ancient practice of yoga. In “Some reflections on the origins of MBSR, skillful means, and the trouble with maps”, Kabat-Zinn mentions that, the roots of MBSR are in certain currents from the “Yogic traditions” and he mentions the names of Hindu spiritual teachers (Kabat-Zinn 2011: 289). Therefore, the meaning of yogic traditions for him might be the works of Hindu spiritual teachers, which are based on their interpretations of the ancient practice of yoga.
2 Vipassanā movement is a meditation movement that became popular in the United States in the 1970s. The practice of Vipassanā (Insight meditation) developed from Buddhist revival in Burma in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982), a Burmese monk spread it in the west. Western seekers such as Jack Kornfield (1945-), Sharon Salzburg (1952-), and Joseph Goldstein (1945-), who were also trained in Asia in Theravāda traditions, were the advocates of Vipassanā. They founded Insight Meditation Center (IMS) in Massachusetts to spread Vipassanā meditation.
3 Bare attention is the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and within us, at the successive moments of perception. It is called "bare" because it attends to the bare facts of a perception without reacting to them by deed, speech or mental comment (Nyanaponika Thera 2001: vii).
4 Modern mindfulness means the mindfulness that is practiced in MBSR and other mindfulness-based interventions.
5 Theosophical society is an organization founded by Madame Helena Blavatsky (1831-1891) and succeeded by Henry Steel Olcott (1832-1907). The organization brought eastern religions to the west.
6 Kōan is a statement, dialogue, story or question given by Zen masters to their disciples. Kōan measures the disciples’ progress in Zen as it provokes the great doubt.
7 Body scan is a meditation practice used in MBSR to reestablish contact with the body. In this meditation, the individual lies down on the back and moves the mind through different body parts.
8 Mindful walking (walking meditation) is a technique of paying attention and experiencing the walking.
9 Mindful eating is paying attention to eating and way of eating.
10 Skillful means (Upaya) is a Buddhist principle described in the Lotus Sutra, which means the action that helps people realize enlightenment. Skillful means can also be used for a conscious action that is helpful for others, and that is correct at that time.
11 Transcendental Meditation (TM) is a meditation technique invented by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1918-2008), in which the TM teacher gives an initiation and chant or mantra. The practitioner meditates with concentration on the mantra.
12 Navanath Sampradaya (Nath Sampradaya) is a sect in India which include nine Gurus. The sect came to be known as Navnath Sampradaya when the followers of the sect chose nine of their early Gurus as main gurus of their creed. Some scholars state that this sect originated with the teachings of the Rishi Dattatreya, who is believed to be an incarnation of the trinity -Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha. The teachings of the Nath Sampradaya are complex and have assumed different forms in different parts of India. The teachings of Nath Sampradaya offers the path to liberation.
Among the nine Gurus, Revananath is said to have founded a sub-sect of his own. He chose Kadasiddha as his chief disciple and successor who initiated Bhausahib Maharaj (1843-1914). Bhausahib Maharaj later established Inchegeri Sampradaya, a new movement within the traditional fold. His disciple was Siddharameshwar Maharaj. Nisargadatta Maharaj is the direct disciple and successor of Siddharameshwar Maharaj (Nisargadatta 1992:539).
13 ‘Absolute’ is the translation of ‘Brahman’ used in the glossary (Appendix III) of I am That (Nisargadatta 1992).
14 Gnani means a knowledgeable person.
15 Ramanasramam is an ashram (hermitage) of Sri Ramana Maharshi that is located at the base of the Arunachala hill, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India. It was a living place of Sri Ramana Maharshi until his death.
16 “Neo-Advaita” or “Satsang” movement was started by the students of H. W. L. Poonja (1910-1997). In Neo-advaita, the emphasis is on self-inquiry and the direct recognition of self and non-existence of the “I” or ego. The practice can be done by anyone without any prerequisites.
