The Spatial Evolution and Characteristics of Korean Ethnic Dwellings in the Tumen River Basin

Abstract

Korean ethnic dwellings have changed rapidly with the urban development of China. However, approaches to this kind of rural construction included insufficient architectural space in their design to meet the needs of contemporary life. We therefore need to better understand the spatial evolution of Korean ethnic dwellings and how to best capture their current spatial characteristics. Taking an Architectural Planning perspective, we looked at 38 typical Korean ethnic dwellings in the Tumen River Basin, the ways in which their spatial character has changed, and the behavior of their residents, before summarizing their overall spatial characteristics. The research revealed that, through the influence of other cultures, elements of the plan form of Korean ethnic dwellings have been enriched and have grown in complexity. This has been accompanied by changes in residential behavior. We identified four types of changes of spatial characteristics: simplification and opening up; local changes of use; adoption of policy guidelines; the influence of other ethnic groups. Results of this research might serve as a reference for the future construction of Korean ethnic dwellings and inform research on other ethnic residences, thereby enriching the development of ethnic culture in China.

Introduction

Korean ethnic people came to China from the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th century (Kamada, 1935). The spatial layout of traditional Korean ethnic dwellings follows a strict ritual tradition. With the pursuit of reforms and more open policies, the government began to concentrate on rural development and, at this point, Korean ethnic dwellings changed rapidly. Evidence from existing research shows that under the influence of multiculturalism, the spatial structure of Korean nationality has changed (Heo and Cho, 2016) and architectural elements and housing lifestyles of Korean ethnic dwellings have also changed (Kim, 2012). However, because of a relatively unitary understanding of Korean ethnic traditional culture in rural construction, contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings have built the same formal or unified space. They therefore lack the design of architectural spaces that conform better to the characteristics of contemporary life. There is a substantial body of research regarding traditional housing (Bai, Ying et al., 2016; Boutabba, Boutabba et al., 2022; Butudoka, 2022). Chinese scholars, in particular, have contributed to the study of Korean ethnic national dwellings (Jin, 2010; Li, B. and Jin, 2007; Piao, Chen et al., 2001). Despite these previous studies, there remains a need to improve our understanding of Korean ethnic dwellings. We particularly need to explore how the spatial organization has evolved, and the characteristics of Korean ethnic dwellings. To do this, we will be addressing the following questions:

(1) How has the spatial layout of Korean ethnic dwellings changed?

(2) What has been the impact of the changes in the behavior of Korean ethnic residents on the spatial layout of their residential buildings?

(3) What are the spatial characteristics of contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings?

The Tumen River Basin is a Korean ethnic settlement in the Yanbian Korean ethnic Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province. The existence of a significant Korean population within the Tumen River basin, and thus the formation of a distinct social network, provides a setting for the transmission of traditional ethnic culture. As a place inhabited by ethnic minorities, implementing relevant state policies has a degree of uniqueness and tendency. Besides, the region contains Korean, Han, Manchu, and other ethnic groups and rich ethnic and cultural resources, while the wide geographic environment becomes a prerequisite for ethnic culture melding. It has formed different spatial characteristics of Korean dwellings in the Tumen River basin over time. There is a large and diverse sample of different ethnic dwellings. In particular, there are many Korean ethnic dwellings constructed in this area, which can greatly assist our research work. Therefore, the scale and diversity of the villages in the Tumen River Basin made it an ideal focus for our research regarding Korean ethnic dwellings, and various dwellings in the villages were measured to obtain the basic information underpinning the study.

This study may serve as a reference to guide the future design and construction of Korean ethnic dwellings and inform research on other ethnic residences, thereby enriching the understanding and development of ethnic culture in China.

Methodology

Study Area

The Tumen River Basin is chosen as the study area, and the study object was Korean and other ethnic dwellings in the Tumen River basin. Tumen river flows east of Changbai mountain. Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture is in Jilin Province. The total length is 520 kilometers. It flows through Helong, Longjing, Tumen, and Hunchun urban areas. And at last, it empties into the Sea of Japan. Jilin Province has quite a river basin region of 22,000 square kilometers. The Tumen River Basin has an average winter temperature of minus 23 degrees Celsius. The average annual precipitation in the Tumen River Basin is 600mm. The Tumen River Basin, home to the Korean ethnic, has the highest density of Korean ethnic people in China.

Tumen River Basin has quite a resident population of 194,700, according to data from the seventh census. Koreans ethnic account for 35.60% of the total population, amounting to 722,400 people. Longjing, Yanji, and Tumen have the highest concentrations of Korean ethnic people.

Research Framework

An Architectural Planning perspective was adopted towards changes in the spatial character of Korean ethnic dwellings and residential behavior (Jin and Xu, 2020). A particular focus was the relationship between residential behavior and differences in spatial morphology. Overall, we sought to be able to summarize the spatial characteristics of contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings. This study adopted a 3-stage approach. It can see Figure 1.

In the first stage, we undertook house measurements in 38 dwellings that were inhabited by different ethnic groups, with different age profiles and familial structures, in 14 research-worthy villages in the Tumen River Basin. The 14 villages included Chinese traditional villages, Chinese minority villages, and ordinary villages. We then organized the collected samples into a database. This was followed by interviews with the residents, so as to uncover changes in the patterns of their behavior. In situ observations were also conducted to further refine our understanding of Korean ethnic residential behavior. This formed the basis of our exploration of the relationship between residential behavior and differences in spatial morphology, so that we could better understand the reasons for changes in the spatial form of contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings.

In the second stage, once the database was established, an Architectural Typology (Aldo, 1984) method was used to explore how the spatial layout of Korean ethnic dwellings had changed from a plan perspective. Then, based on the results of our behavioral observations, we compared current behavior to descriptions of their traditional way of life to determine where changes had occurred. We particularly wanted to identify how the changes of living space had been caused by changes in their way of life, thereby enhancing our understanding of how and why the living space had evolved.

In the last stage of the study, the study concluded with horizontal induction and comparison, to summarize the overall characteristics of contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings in the Tumen River Basin.

Figure 1. Research framework for the present study

Sample Information

An overview of our investigation of the dwellings is presented in Table 1. Here, we summarize information regarding the location of the folk houses, their assigned codes, and their population. The field picture of form of dwellings in the Tumen River Basin can be seen Figure 2.

Table 1. The investigation of dwellings in the Tumen River Basin and the situation table

Survey Location		Survey Example	Inhabitant Nationality	Population of House	Method of Survey
Tumen City	Bailong Village	T-BL01	Korean nationality	F1	2Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		T-BL02	Korean nationality	F1
	Shijian Village	T-SJ01	Korean nationality	None	2Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		T-SJ02	Korean nationality	M1
	Shuinan Village	T-SN01	Korean nationality	M1, F1	6Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		T-SN02	Korean nationality	None
		T-SN03	Korean nationality	M1
		T-SN04	Korean nationality	M1, F1 α1
		T-SN05	Korean nationality	F1,M1
		T-SN06	Korean nationality	None
	Hexi Village	T-HX01	Korean nationality	M1, F1 m1, f1	2Measurement, Interview, Photograph 1 Interview, Photograph
		T-HX02	Han nationality	M1, F1, α1
		T-HX03	Han nationality	M1, F1
	Huangshan Village	T-LH01	Han nationality	F1	1 Interview, Photograph
	Liangshui Village	T­-LS01	Han nationality	F1	1Measurement, Interview, Photograph 2 Interview, Photograph
		T­-LS02	Korean nationality	None
		T­-LS03	Korean nationality	α1
Hunchun City	Beida Village	H­-BD01	Korean nationality	F1	1Measurement, Interview, Photograph 1 Interview, Photograph
		H-BD02	Korean nationality	M1, F1
	Baer Village	H-BE01	Korean nationality	M1, F1	2Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		H­-BE02	Korean/Manchu	m1, f1 α1, β1
	Bayi Village	H­-BY01	Korean nationality	M1, F1	1 Interview, Photograph
	Gucheng Village	H-GC01	Han nationality	M1 m1	5Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		H-GC02	Han nationality	None
		H-GC03	Manchu nationality	M1, F1, m1
		H-GC04	Manchu nationality	None
	Shatuozi Village	H-STZ01	Han nationality	m1,f1, β1	4Measurement, Interview, Photograph 1 Interview, Photograph
		H-STZ02	Korean nationality	M1
		H-STZ03	Korean nationality	M1, F1
		H-STZ04	Korean nationality	M1, F1
		H-STZ05	Han nationality	m1, f1 β1
	Xiwaizi Village	H-XWZ01	Korean nationality	M1, F1	3Measurement, Interview, Photograph
		H-XWZ02	Han nationality	None
		H-XWZ03	Korean nationality	M1 m1
	Jiushaping Village	H-JSP01	Korean nationality	M1	1Measurement, Interview, Photograph
	Huilongfeng Village	H-HLF01	Korean nationality	M1, F1	3 Interview, Photograph
		H-HLF02	Korean nationality	M1, F1
		H-HLF03	Han nationality	M1, F1

Note: (1) T—Tumen city region, H—Hunchun city region.

(2) Measuring house in red mark.

(3) F- Grandfather, M- Grandmother, f- Father, m- Mother, α- Grandson, β- Granddaughter, 1- One single bit Korean nationality folk house resident.

Figure 2. The picture of dwellings in Tumen River Basin

Data Collection

We collect sample data using traditional survey methods such as measurement and interviews. We took a random sample of 14 villages and photographed 38 homes. Conduct semi-structured interviews with the owners of 38 homes to learn about family structure, member ages, and housing information. Second, 27 houses were subjected to detailed measurements. The house plan, the size of the house furniture, and the position of the house furniture in the plan are all part of the measurement content. Finally, the collected survey data are organized into a sample database, which provides the research foundation for subsequent analysis. And CAD is used to visualize the measured house data. For the study of behavioral evolution, we used indoor behavioral observation to record the behavioral patterns of residents (Chenoweth, King et al., 2009). The observations were supplemented with semi-structured interviews. During the interview, questions are asked flexibly based on key points, and new questions can be discussed. This interview mode makes the content more comprehensive and digs out in-depth information.

Data Analysis

Architectural Typology Analysis

At the present, type and typology have been considered conventional methodology in practice (Im and Han, 2015). We used the research method of Architectural Typology to compare the dwellings spatial in different periods. First of all, we expressed the spatial organization of dwellings according to the schematic diagram drawn from the plan. Secondly, this paper was divided into 4 time periods, which were classified according to the age of housing construction. Finally, the spatial of the dwellings were compared with each other, and the result of the evolution trend of dwellings is obtained through a comprehensive analysis.

The recorded results were then compared with the traditional way of lifestyle, and the changes in the way of life of the residents were obtained. Through the above method to explore the changes in living space caused by the change of way of life. And combined with the spatial diagram shows the spatial differentiation of dwellings caused by behavioral changes.

Induction and Comparison Approach

The inductive method, a method for interpretation that moves from a narrow range of opinions about particular items to a wider range, is a critical tool for scientific inquiry and discoveries. It draws general ideas and principles from particular concrete examples. In order to comprehend the nature and rules of things and arrive at an accurate assessment, contrast analysis is a research strategy that compares objective topics. In this paper, we used the method of induction to summarize the spatial characteristics of Korean ethnic dwellings first. Secondly, we used the method of comparison classifying different spatial characters and gives examples to illustrate the spatial features. Practical cases used floor plans and spatial organization diagrams to express spatial characteristics. Finally, the proportion of the number of residential houses with different characteristics in the sample group is counted.

Results

Spatial changes in Korean ethnic dwellings in the Tumen River Basin

Spatial organization can be seen to encompass material and spiritual functions (Paul, 1957). This is why it was important to not only explore the evolution of the spatial form of the dwellings, but also the influence upon this of the living behavior of their residents. A combination of these two considerations provides for more in-depth and comprehensive research results.

The spatial evolution of Korean ethnic dwellings

The architectural plan provides a way of expressing architectural space (Paul, 1957). We therefore analyzed spatial changes in Korean ethnic dwellings by examining changes in their plan form.

Before 1949, the plan form of Korean ethnic folk houses in the Tumen River Basin was of a Ham-kyeong do type (Jin and Qu, 2019). This adheres to traditional etiquette and is neat and simple. A "田" plan dwelling has many rooms and is one such type of traditional Korean ethnic dwelling. This kind of house is inhabited by three generations. A "日" plan dwelling is inhabited by two generations, while a "一" plan dwelling is inhabited by one or two generations (Jin and Xu, 2020). The "田" plan is used as an example to show the spatial composition and function of traditional Korean ethnic dwellings: the Ondolbang (온돌방) (W), is a space in which elders sleep and live; the Jeongjibang (정주간) (J) is a living space; the kitchen (부스깨)(K) is a cooking space; the Badang (바당) (B) is a transitional space that is kept elegant and hygienic; the storeroom/cowshed (창고/외양간) (C /N) is a livestock space that is placed as far as possible from the Ondolbang side (Temporary-Mashima-Police-Station-Office, 1910). And the toilet (변소) (WC) was positioned outside before the 1990s but has gradually come to be placed inside. The spatial composition of Korean ethnic house can see Figure 3.

Figure 3. The plan form of traditional Korean ethnic dwelling in the Yanbian region

Source: The picture is drawn based on the picture of the reference (Temporary Mashima Police Station Office, 1910).

From 1949 to 1978, lots of houses were built in the villages to house the production labor. During this period, the Jeongjibang was expanded and took on both bedroom and living room functions. Nonetheless, the plan form remained largely based on the plan form of traditional Korean ethnic dwellings, which was seen to satisfy people's basic living needs.

From 1978 to 1992, the function of the different spaces gradually became more specific, with the dwelling's interior public and private spaces becoming increasingly separated. For instance, the bedroom became a space for the younger generation to live in. Independent kitchens were set up and the Badang gradually became an independent porch space connected to the outdoor environment. The Ondolbang space, meanwhile, underwent a transverse expansion and the storeroom was usually set up on the north side of the house.

Between 1992 and the present, increased spatial traffic appeared in Korean ethnic dwellings. Though the spaces became enriched they also became more disordered. The rate of space utilization was reduced and the traffic lines became less orderly. In addition, terraced houses began to be constructed in many of the villages, with a simpler and more open plan form. Here, the Ondolbang and Kitchen are blended to form a single large space.

Figure 4. The diagram of changes in dwellings in Tumen River Basin

Note: W(Ondolbang), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), MR(Back porch). Red area(Evolution space). X(Porch).

Figure 4 shows how the elements of the plan form of Korean ethnic dwellings have become enriched. To satisfy people's needs, both traditional and new houses have been transformed and recurrently adapted. Thus, the plan form of Korean ethnic dwellings has undergone a number of important changes.

Changes in residential behavior

Architectural spaces can also be as architectural interfaces for people's lives and activities (Nagazawa, Tsuzuka et al., 2005). As subjects within space, it inevitably encompasses their behavior. So, changes in their behavior will lead to changes in the spatial form. It is therefore important to consider changes in lifestyle and how this has led to spatial differentiation.

(1) Modes of access

There are many ways to walk into a Korean ethnic dwelling. The principal modes of access are into the Ondolbang, the Badang, and the storeroom. The most common mode of access is via the Badang and this is the main way of entering the house. The spatial organization of the Badang is designed to ensure that the room can be kept clean and hygienic. There are also different kinds of access relating to gender. Peopke of Korean ethnicity traditionally see outside the home as a male domain. They are also concerned about showing due respect to elders. This has led to the incorporation of independent doors and the provision of an extension space (Maru) (툇마루) that is designed for male intercommunication.

These ways of entering have also undergone change. For instance, the number of entrances has reduced and the ways of walking in have changed. There were 3~5 entrances in traditional Korean ethnic dwellings. Nowadays, there is often just one entrance, which concentrates on preserving access via the Badang. Even the extension space has disappeared.

(2) Living behavior

In traditional Korean ethnic dwellings, living and sleeping behaviors were usually carried out in the same space. The living space was divided into a male space and a female space. Men received guests and conducted daily activities in their room, while women and children did their daily housework in the Jeongjibang.

Nowadays, the living space has been enlarged, and blended with the Ondolbang, while preserving the traditional way of heating. People’s everyday activities now largely happen on the south side of the living space and their sleep-related activities mostly happen on the north side of the space.

The newly integrated Jeongjibang has become the main site for dining and living. The bedchamber is strictly a sleeping space and is usually idle. A further recent change is that the elders and younger people now mostly use the same rooms.

(3) Sleeping behavior

In traditional Korean ethnic dwellings, the elders slept on the south side of the Ondolbang and the younger generation slept on the north side of the Ondolbang. This spatial layout was a way of enacting their traditional culture. Nowadays, sleeping behavior has shifted to the Jeongjibang. As a piece of modern furniture, the bed is decorated in keeping with the house and reflects an interest in pursuing a more comfortable life and having a higher-quality living environment. The traditional horizontal floor lifestyle has gradually changed into a vertical lifestyle. The Ondol is now used as part of the living space and the bed is arranged on the north side of the Ondol. The reasons underlying these changes are that: (1) people are now spending more time awake than asleep; (2) there is a preference to have the living space on the sunny side of the house. Taken together, there have been a number of significant changes in residential behavior.

(4) Cooking behavior

Nowadays, the Korean ethnic diet incorporates more oil and salt. Traditional kitchens are no longer suitable for cooking because they would generate a lot of cooking fumes. In many houses, sliding doors have been added to the living space and the kitchen to maintain a clear boundary. The installation of sliding doors also serves to save space and to not only block out cooking fumes but also to insulate the house's unique layout. Most families have now replaced traditional utensils with modern cooking tools and can cook in the kitchen all year round (see Figure 5). The Ondol is still used to heat rooms and to dehumidify them on rainy days, but the traditional Kama has been removed or even disappeared.

Figure 5. Traditional and modern kitchen space

(5) Indoor toilet behavior

In the past, the toilet was placed in the courtyard to maintain sanitary conditions by keeping the toilet space outside of the house. Nowadays, such sanitary arrangements are inadequate. Thus, a toilet space now features in the construction of new houses. This produces new traffic flows. However, some houses are too old to have toilets built inside, so the toilet remains an independent space in the courtyard.

Impact of residential behavior on the dwelling space

Changes in people's residential behavior has had an impact on the dwelling space, leading to changes in the spatial layout of dwellings. As a result, we found that the spatial morphology changed according to different changes in residential behavior. Using the dwelling plan as an example, the results of the changes in spatial form were visualized using typical schematic diagrams.

The contemporary mode of access in Korean ethnic houses is via the Badang. As family structures have become simplified, so new houses no longer require independent entrances for elders, leaving just the Badang access mode. It is easier to keep this room warm and maintain its hygiene. The traditional extension space (Maru) (툇마루) has been transformed into a porch space, indirectly leading to an enrichment of elements of the interior space.

There are three kinds of contemporary Korean bedtime behavior. Following the integration of the Ondolbang and Jeongjibang, the first of these is to set a mattress on the ground on the north side of the space. The second is to have a set of bed furniture on the north side of this newly integrated space. When a number of generations are living together as a family, the third approach is to have a bedroom on the east or west side of the house that can be used by the younger generation.

There are two principal kinds of contemporary living behavior in Korean ethnic homes. The first takes place in the newly integrated Ondolbang and Jeongjibang, while the floor of the Ondol is fully paved. This living behavior mainly takes place on the south side of the space. A second option is for diversified living behaviors to involve a greater amount of standing. In this case, the floor area of the Ondol is reduced and the space for traffic is set to the south. From our on-site observations, most people's living behavior is concentrated around the edge of the Ondol.

The scope for different kinds of cooking behavior has expanded in contemporary Korean ethnic houses, with cooking no longer being limited to the kitchen pit, because of the introduction of modern cooking utensils, such as gas stoves and sinks for washing dishes and modern hearths. However, the dining space has not changed much and food continues to be delivered from the kitchen space into the Jeongjibang. It can see the Figure 6.

Figure 6. Part of space evolution as a result of resident behavior change

Note: W(Ondolbang), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), MR(Back porch), G(Kama), st(Floor lifestyle), vt(Vertical lifestyle), Red area(Evolution space). The dwelling behavior evolution diagrams were sorted by myself according to the rural survey.

The spatial characteristics of contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings

After a long period of spatial evolution, there are several characteristics in contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings. Their spatial characteristics can be summarized into four principal types: the space layout is gradually opening up, parts of the space have changed, contemporary Korean ethnic houses form multi-unit spatial layout, and spatial layout after multi-ethnic cultural influence.

Figure 7 shows the house's spatial layout becoming simpler and more open. There are now large spaces that break the order of the rooms. These large spaces are divided into several fuzzy functional areas relating to different behaviors.

Figure 7. Open and simple morphological evolution of the plan form

Note: W(Ondolbang ), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), Red area(Evolution space). The spatial layout of T-SN03 type Korean nationality folk house was revised in 2010.

Figure 8 shows where just some parts of the space have changed significantly. Here, the volume of the Ondolbang has been reduced. In the kitchen, influenced by modern culture, people have started to use modern cooking utensils. The original storeroom has been changed into a chamber for guests.

Figure 8. Plan form evolution of part of space

Note: W(Ondolbang ), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), Red area(Evolution space). The plan forms evolution of local spatial were sorted by the author according to the rural survey.

Figure 9 shows Korean ethnic dwelling that has been constructed in the form of a multi-unit spatial layout according to the policy guidelines. Dwellings have been constructed in different periods, and it was mainly influenced by policy. The T-SN01 type was mainly built to house production team staff in the 1970s. The T-SJ01 type was built in 2010. Here, the Jeongjibang and Ondolbang are blended, creating a larger space to accommodate basic everyday residential behavior.

Figure 9. The layout of the terraced house is created by the guidance of policy

Note: W(Ondolbang ), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), Red area(Evolution space). The plan forms of the terraced house is created under the guidance of policy.

Korean ethnic dwellings have also been influenced by other ethnic cultures. Figure 10 shows how the fully-paved Kang (Ondol) in Korean ethnic houses tends to have a Semi-Kang form. The process of communication between Korean and Han cultures has resulted in the Han culture influencing the Korean ethnic culture. Our investigation has specifically uncovered that a traditional tendency amongst people of Korean ethnicity to sit has shifted towards them being more frequently upright. And Figure 11 shows how the kitchen pit has disappeared in Korean ethnic dwellings, to be replaced with a high kitchen hearth similar to the hearths in Han dwellings.

Figure 10. Korean nationality folk house layout tends to be the Semi-Kang form

Note: W(Ondolbang), J(Jeongjibang), K(Kitchen), C(Storeroom), B(Badang), WC(Toilet), R(Bedroom), L(Livingroom), D(Hallway), C/N(Cowshed/Storeroom), MR(Back porch). Red area (Evolution space).

Figure 11. The kitchen pit has been disappeared

Note: Red area is the evolution space.

In order to identify the tendency of Korean ethnic residents to choose the mode of construction, the proportion of contemporary dwelling characteristics that have changed over time has been determined. Figure 12 shows that the proportion of Korean ethnic dwellings that have blended in elements of other ethnic cultures account for 15.79% of the total number of houses we measured. The residents of Korean ethnic dwellings tend to learn from other ethnic groups when they build their houses. The number of dwellings that were built according to policy guidelines accounts for 23.68% of the total. The proportion of traditional dwellings was 31.58%. There were a total of 12 traditional dwellings, of which 70% were uninhabited, with only 30% continuing to be inhabited.

Figure 12. Statistic of changes in dwelling in Tumen River Basin

Discussion

In this paper, we have explored the spatial evolution and the impact of changes of resident lifestyle on the plan form of Korean ethnic dwellings. We have also summarized their general spatial characteristics.

By paying particular attention to their planar layout and the distributional logic of their functional space, our results have shown that elements of the spatial organization of Korean ethnic dwellings have become enriched over time. Changes in Korean living behavior have changed the logic of the spatial arrangement of their homes. This has been found in the studies of the dwellings of other ethnic groups. A related study, for instance, has suggested that traditional Tibetan folk houses in the Jiarong have also evolved in line with changes in people's patterns of behavior (Li, J., Wang et al., 2022). However, different ethnic groups exhibit different kinds of cultural difference and the social environment of various regions also differs.

We also have noted that there are four types of spatial characteristics in contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings. The most notable of these is where the house's spatial layout becomes simpler and more open. This is aligned with earlier studies that found the definition and division of space has been gradually disappearing in favor of more open spaces in Korean ethnic dwellings (Jin and Qu, 2019). This suggests that, in the process of building houses, people tend to choose the most current mode of construction.

In the process of cultural integration, people learn from and communicate with each other (Fei, 2006). Korean ethnic residents have drawn on this learning in the construction of their houses, leading to the formation of unique spatial characteristics that also embrace aspects of their traditional culture. We found that 15.79% of the Korean ethnic dwellings could be termed multi-ethnic residences evidencing some degree of cultural integration. Besides, people's choice of modes of construction also exhibits an adaptation to their social environment (Wang, 2014). According to our statistics, a lot of residents of Korean ethnic origin choose to build their houses according to national policy, with the proportion sitting at 23.68%. This shows that people of Korean ethnicity use policy as a source of reference when constructing their homes and adapting to the environment. This has made policy-based housing the most stable mode of construction.

In this paper, we looked at the spatial evolution of Korean ethnic dwellings from a primarily architectural perspective. In the following section, we will discuss the influencing factors of our findings at a social and geographical level which can offer new insights and add breadth to our understanding.

Influencing factors from a sociological perspective

From a social perspective, the following are the variables that lead to the spatial evolution of Korean homes: the influence of other cultures, the changes in family structure, and the implementation of relevant policies.

Other cultures have influenced the evolution of the spatial layout of Korean ethnic dwellings. People of Korean ethnic origin sought to maintain their traditional culture up until the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. However, as they adopted a more modern lifestyle, the rapid breakdown of their traditional culture led to significant changes in the spatial characteristics of traditional Korean ethnic dwellings. For instance, growing equality between women, men, and even the more senior and junior members of a household have led to them increasingly sharing one space. So they living in this region have sought to maintain their unique culture, while absorbing aspects of the other cultures around them, thereby further enriching their cultural characteristics.

The changes in family structure have an effect on the openness of the spatial form of Korean ethnic dwellings. Since the Chinese government implemented its policy of reform and opening up 40 years ago, a large number of rural residents have moved to urban areas (Huang, Dan et al., 2018). In many villages, the native population is aging, and more and more young people leaving the area. There have also been changes in family structure, with family relations becoming simplified. As a result, individual family house construction cannot satisfy the needs of rural house renewal. Most new houses are built by construction teams. According to our statistical analysis, the proportion of houses with family members over 60 years old had reached 71.1%. This confirms that the family population is aging. The T-SN03 residential house is a new type of building. Here, the owner is an elderly person who lives alone and cannot undertake house construction. They therefore entrust construction teams to do the initial construction and subsequent maintenance work. For instance, cross-generational families live together in T-SN04 dwellings. This simplification of family relationships has resulted in some spaces in these houses merging.

The current stage of rural policy implementation has resulted in diverse spatial characteristics of Korean ethnic dwellings. In the rural revitalization strategy implemented by the Chinese government, traditional cultural inheritance is of paramount importance, including the preservation of the traditional elements of folk dwellings. Residential houses such as T-SJ02 and H-HLF02 are built according to these policies and subsidized by the local government. The interior space retains the Ondol system of traditional dwellings and the main Jeongjibang spatial characteristics. This shows respect towards the interests of different national cultures. However, the spatial layout of these kinds of dwellings is simple and not well-suited to the privacy needs of contemporary people, which has an impact on the lives of their inhabitants. Nonetheless, the implementation of such policies augments the residential cultures of ethnic minorities and helps to keep them maintained (Kuai, 2016).

Influencing factors from a geographical perspective

To look at the spatial evolution of Korean ethnic folk houses from a geographical perspective, we used the ArcGIS platform to visualize the layout of the dwellings in the Tumen River Basin. Figure 13 shows the geographical and environmental factors that have affected the changes in the spatial organization of Korean ethnic dwellings. The difficulty of communication between residents in this kind of rugged terrain is not so conducive to development. As a result, people no longer settle in this area, which has led to the preservation of more traditional dwellings. The open terrain in the downstream area provides a setting in which ethnic cultures can blend. At the same time, transportation in the downstream area is more straightforward and people can communicate with one another more frequently, increasing the likelihood of multicultural integration. The proportion of different nationalities inhabiting the flatter downstream area suggests the conditions are ideal for the blending of different cultures. We can therefore see that dwellings in the downstream areas exhibit a greater enrichment of elements and a more pronounced historical evolution. For example, in T-HX01, H-BE02, H-STZ02, H-STZ04, and H-XWZ03, there is a greater diversity of spatial elements than in dwellings in the upstream area. Thus, it can be seen that the dwellings in which the local ethnic residential cultures have most evidently blended are mainly distributed in the downstream part of the Tumen River basin.

Figure 13. Distribution map of dwelling in Tumen River Basin

Conclusion

The overarching objective of this research was to explore the spatial evolution and characteristics of Korean ethnic dwellings from an architectural planning perspective.

The spatial elements of Korean ethnic dwellings have become enriched and adhere to the distributional logic of the functional space in terms of their planar layout. Characteristically, contemporary Korean ethnic dwellings have tended to become simpler and more open. In addition, we found that the spaces relating to local interaction have changed significantly. At the same time, Korean ethnic dwellings as a multi-unit spatial layout are showing adherence to policy guidelines. We have also seen that people of Korean ethnicity have been influenced by other ethnic cultures and that this has also had an impact on the spatial layout of their houses.

Through exploration and analysis of the spatial characteristics of Korean ethnic dwellings in the Tumen River Basin, the relevant construction institutions can acquire a more intuitive understanding of these dwellings. This research should therefore serve as reference for further research regarding the spatial evolution of Korean ethnic dwellings. By exploring the evolution and characteristics of these houses, we can also see how Korean ethnicity has undergone change and development in China. On the basis of this research, people's choices regarding different modes of residential construction and how these have evolved, together with their actual construction needs, may serve as a reference for future design and construction processes.

As this study focused specifically on changes in Korean ethnic dwellings, it was impossible to examine the wider spatial characteristics of the villages in which they were situated and the role this might have played in their evolution. This will therefore be a focus of our future research.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Haoying Li and Ming Li; methodology, Haoying Li and Ming Li; software, Haoying Li; investigation, Haoying Li; resources, Haoying Li and Ming Li; data curation, Haoying Li; writing—original draft preparation, Haoying Li; writing—review and editing, Haoying Li and Ming Li. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Ethics Declaration

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of the paper.

Funding

This research was funded by the Basic scientific research fees of central universities in China (DUT20RC(3)063).

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the assistance provided by Gucheng Village Committee, Beida Village Committee, et al.

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