Human well-being in urban revitalization
Impacts of Excessive Japanese Black Bear Appearances on Residents' Daily Lives:
Health and social effects
2024 Volume 12 Issue 4 Pages 28-43
Details
2024 Volume 12 Issue 4 Pages 28-43
In 2020, a human–wildlife conflict (HWC) occurred in Ishikawa Prefecture owing to the excessive appearance of the Japanese black bear (JBB). Focusing on hidden impacts other than crop and human injuries caused by HWC, this study investigated behavioral changes in residents and the impacts on health and social relations. Research on the health and social impacts of HWC is limited, and an analysis based on an online survey conducted in February 2021 yielded the following new results: 1) adverse health effects can only be expected if there is an extreme decrease in outdoor activity, 2) mental health effects are more pronounced if the decrease in time spent outdoors makes it difficult to maintain the status quo, and 3) decreased activity over time is associated with the loss of psychological well-being and the risk of insomnia and depressive symptoms. Presumedly, the symptoms caused by HWC related to JBBs manifested in society. In this case, there will be a negative social impact of weakening the rural community, which is maintained by residents’ proactive self-governing behavior. At the individual level, an increase in medical expenditure is also expected to negatively impact household finances.
Many sacrifices have been made because of human-wildlife conflicts (commonly referred to as HWC), and today’s reasoning of coexistence with wildlife has been reinforced by it (Nyhus, Philip J, 2016). Interaction with wildlife allows humans to enjoy various benefits in terms of positive ecosystem services and well-being (Soulsbury and White, 2015). However, it has recently been reported that the high economic costs of HWC cause negative thinking among residents (Khattak, Teng et al., 2021). In areas with declining and aging populations, the management of buffer zones tends to be neglected and degradation tends to progress. The resulting gaps allow wild animals to invade human living spaces, increase encounters, and induce HWC (Huang, C., Li et al., 2018). Furthermore, sightings have frequently been reported in mountainous and foothill areas close to habitats and urban areas in recent years (Messmer, 2000; Tampakis, Andrea et al., 2023). Attempts have been made to reduce HWC either by active trapping (Northrup, Howe et al., 2023) or by strategically managing the foraging behavior of wild animals (Baruch-Mordo, Webb et al., 2013; Buchholtz, McDaniels et al., 2023), but there are many challenges in terms of costs and other factors.
Thus, HWC is a critical social issue related to the boundary areas around habitats and human activity areas. This study focused on Japan’s HWC related to the Asian Black Bear (scientific name: Ursus thibetanus), a wild carnivorous bear species widely distributed from West Asia to East Asia. The species living in Japan is called the Japanese Black Bear (hereafter abbreviated as JBB) and mainly inhabits the main islands of the Japanese Archipelago.
In general, geographic information, such as the number of occurrences and trace locations, based on wildlife sightings is recorded, and the damage costs to humans, livestock, and crops are easily assessed (Karanth, Naughton-Treves et al., 2013). Concerning these visible costs, extensive analyses have been conducted to measure residents' risk perceptions (Kishioka and Yamashita, 2023) and individual behavioral changes based on damage experiences (Yan, Wei et al., 2022).
However, these visible costs are only part of the costs stemming from HWCs; some impacts are difficult to visually confirm, and disservices to the ecosystem may become apparent in the long term. These are referred to as "hidden costs" as opposed to visible costs (Barua, Bhagwat et al., 2013). Hidden costs include the physical health hazards of HWCs and mental disorders that are said to exceed them (Barua, Bhagwat et al., 2013; Chowdhury, Mondal et al., 2008), opportunity costs related to countermeasures, and transaction costs related to compensation.
According to a recent study using giant pandas as an example, hidden costs owing to HWC are estimated to be approximately 40% of the income (Ma, Cai et al., 2023) However, the argument for hidden costs is relatively thin and needs to be adequately evaluated compared with visible costs (Dupuis‐Desormeaux, Kaaria et al., 2023; Manoa, Mwaura et al., 2020). Therefore, compensation and insurance for visible costs have been variously considered (Nyhus, P.J., Osofsky et al., 2005; Sherchan, Rai et al., 2022), but studies have reported significant dissatisfaction with compensation for hidden costs (Guru and Das, 2021; Ravenelle and Nyhus, 2017; Rutta, 2023). This is partly because those compensations and insurance policies are for income losses for crop and livestock losses caused by wild animals (Baral, Kedar, Sharma, Hari Prasad et al., 2021).
Discussions have been extremely lacking, especially with regard to the assessment of the hidden costs derived from black bears in Asia, including JBBs. Contrary to the theory that health and psychological status positively predict perceptions of HWC (Sabuhoro, Ayorekire et al., 2023), the opposite or inverse of this proposition may also hold. In other words, the possibility that HWC experiences and the risk perceptions of black bears have a positive or negative impact on residents’ health and social capital have not been confirmed. The deepening of this debate is expected to contribute to the policy process regarding daily life and welfare safety net of compensation for invisible costs, as described above, based on scientific findings (Yeshey, Ford et al., 2022).
Research purposeWe considered the health and social effects of excessive JBB appearances in the study area, Ishikawa Prefecture in the Hokuriku region, which is in the central part of the Japanese archipelago (Figure 1). In Ishikawa Prefecture, excessively irregular JBB appearances and associated physical injuries were recorded in 2020 (Figure 2). In addition, local studies on JBB in this region are biased toward habitat surveys and population management analyses (Ando and Oi, 2023; Mizutani, Nakajima et al., 2013; Oi, Ogawa et al., 2021), without any discussion of hidden costs. Ishikawa Prefecture was selected as the study area for the following reasons.
Focusing on the appearance of the 2020 anomaly shown in Figure 2, we evaluated the hidden costs for the residents of the study area, and assessed whether the behavior change has resulted in hidden costs, specifically potential health effects and negative changes in social capital.
The behavioral change we consider here is in the frequency of going out and the frequency of interaction with others (relatives and friends) through conversation and contact. Then, potential health effects and changes in social capital induced by behavioral changes are considered as the hidden costs.
The impact on health was analyzed by synthesizing the findings of previous studies on the relationship between changes in the frequency of outgoing behaviors and their impact on health. Correlations between intention to exercise and subjective well-being, exercise habits, and mental health have been demonstrated (Kai and Yamazaki, 2009; Xu, Yuan et al., 2019). This approach supports the findings and analogizes the impact of HWC if it constrains daily behaviors from different aspects.
Data collectionData were collected following a research protocol approved by the Research Ethics Subcommittee of the Human Rights and Ethics Committee of Ishikawa prefectural university (approval number:2020-6, approval date: February 1, 2021). There are no conflicts of interest to be disclosed in the conduct of this study. The participants were informed of the purpose of the study and their right to withdraw their responses at the end of the study. Data were collected using a web-based questionnaire survey on social media platforms. The questionnaire was distributed through messages sent by the research company to social media accounts approved as candidates.
The social media platform used was LINE, which has the highest penetration rate in Japan. The usage rate of LINE in FY2020, when the survey was conducted, was approximately 80% for those in their 50s and 60s and approximately 95% for those in their 40s and younger, indicating that LINE is widely used by all age groups (Ministry-of-Internal-Affairs-and-Communications, 2021).
The survey was conducted in February 2021. At the time, the total number of candidates in the prefecture was 42,242 (males:14,091; females:28,151; males and females aged 15 and older).
The sample size was based on the population ratios of all municipalities (cities and towns) in Ishikawa Prefecture, as shown in Figure 1. The age range was designed to be equal for each age group from the 20s to the 60s and above. However, owing to the uneven age of the candidates and the selection of valid responses, excluding incomplete responses, the result included slightly more respondents in their 40s and 50s, as shown in the next section.
Questions and aggregate figuresThe total number of valid responses was 1,742 (0.16% of the prefecture's total population). The following summarizes the questions, options, and sampling data.
First, the following items were used to identify individual attributes. Age and gender data were not collected from the original survey, because they were registered and updated regularly as part of the candidate approval process.
The following summarizes the questions, options, and tabulated values in this order.
Q1: Does your area of daily living include the 2020 JBB sighting locations? (a list of settlement names is given, including all sightings per municipality)
Options for Q1:
Q2: Do you have family members living with you?
Options for Q2:
Q3: Have you ever encountered any of the following wildlife?
Options for Q3: (Options 1 and 2 can be selected at the same time, and Option 3 is backward from the others)
Next, the items related to direct knowledge and behavior change regarding the excessive appearance of JBBs in Ishikawa Prefecture in 2020, which is the focus of this study, are as follows.
Q4: Please enter the time spent outdoors as a daily routine from summer to winter 2020 in minutes for each of the three periods: early morning, daytime, and nighttime.
Three categories in Q4: (cumulative percentages in parentheses)
Q5: Have you ever encountered any of the following wildlife?
Options for Q5:
Q6: Since then, what changes in behavior have you experienced because of receiving the information asked about in Q5?
Options for Q6: (Only 1,456 respondents who chose Option 1 in Q5 answered this question. Multiple choices are allowed, but choices 1 and 2 are back-to-back, and choices 3 and 4 are back-to-back. (In addition, Option 8 is a contradiction of the others:)
Q7: As a result of taking the coping actions you described in Q6, how much constraint or stress did you feel? Please answer on a scale of 1 to 11. (Only 1,456 respondents who chose Option 1 in Q5 answered this question.)
Options for Q7:
In addition, the following items related to the change in connection with the people around them that occurred because of coping behavior responded to Q8:
Q8: If you have family members living with you, how have the "ties" between them changed?
Q9: How have your "connections" with your neighbors changed?
Q10: How has your "connection" with government officials in your residential area changed?
Common options for Q8-10: (answered if you chose anything other than "did nothing in particular" in Q6):
Based on the findings of previous studies, we estimated the criteria for evaluating the impact on health and social capital caused by psychological anxiety about HWC and refraining from going out to avoid it. By matching the results of the questionnaire mentioned above survey against the criteria, we estimate the risks that may surface.
As mentioned above, even when JBBs and other animal species were included, few studies have discussed the impact of behavioral modifications caused by HWC. Given this constraint, we collected data from several representative studies that focused on the relationship between daily activity and health status, with older adults as the primary target. In addition, we considered unexpected behavioral regulation triggered by natural disasters and COVID-19 as an analogy to HWC. We collected data from previous studies that discussed some of these impacts. Google Scale was used for retrieval. The basic search terms were < "HWC" or "Disease or COVID-19" > & < "Activity" > & <"Health or Social" >.
Evaluation criteria of impact for healthMany studies have analyzed trends in changes in activity and statistical relationships among health indicators. However, we applied this study to select articles that provided clear quantitative information (minute, time, day, etc.) regarding changes in activity. As many rural residents are elderly, experimental studies targeting only developing children were excluded.
We carefully narrowed the number of citations and other criteria based on the number of articles found in the search. Consequently, there is a high possibility that local studies have not been conducted worldwide. Given the lack of data, the list of papers is presented in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, health impacts can be broadly divided into direct and indirect (internal) components. The former is further divided into the maintenance of physical health and its impact on the brain, such as dementia. The latter are further divided into psychological indicators such as subjective health and quality of life (QOL) and negative symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and insomnia. If steps per second = 1.5 and moderate activity = activities in daily life, we interpret the findings in Table 1 as follows:
To maintain physical health, habitual walking with moderate activity for approximately 20-80 minutes per day is required (Aoyagi and Shephard, 2010, 2013; Park, Park et al., 2010; Shephard and Aoyagi, 2014; Tudor-Locke, Craig et al., 2011). This was considered [Criterion 1].
Psychological distress, such as the sense of constraint, is a non-exercise-related measure. After natural disaster, older survivors with high levels of psychological distress have a significantly high risk of dysfunction (Tanji, Sugawara et al., 2017). This was considered [Criterion 2].
Habitual walking for approximately 30 minutes with moderate activity is necessary to maintain cognitive function and memory (Ishiki, Okinaga et al., 2016). This was considered [Criterion 3].
Regarding the maintenance of psychological indicators and negative symptoms, walking for approximately 50 minutes produces an avoidance effect on mental disorders, and outdoor activities for 4 hours or more can achieve a dramatic improvement (Aoyagi and Shephard, 2013; Liang and Guan, 2023). This was considered as [Criterion 4].
| Author | Key Points |
|---|---|
| Aoyagi and Shephard (2010), Shephard and Aoyagi (2014) | Physical health requires at least 20 minutes of moderate walking (about 5 km/h) daily, plus at least 60 minutes of moderate activity. |
| Park, Park et al. (2010) | People who walk 5,300 steps daily or engage in less than 15 minutes of moderate activity are at risk of developing sarcopenia. |
| Tudor-Locke, Craig et al. (2011) | Daily exercise of 5,000±3,000 steps and 30 minutes of moderate daily activity are sufficient to maintain health. |
| Aoyagi and Shephard (2013) | Although there are gender differences, when evaluated by the number of steps taken per day: 4,000 to 5,000 steps have the effect of avoiding mental and psychosocial health problems such as depressed mood and decreased health-related quality of life; 7,000 to 8,000 steps have the effect of reducing aortic stiffness, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and exercise capacity; 8,000 to 10,000 steps have the effect of preventing hypertension and high blood sugar. |
| Ozdemir, Cansel et al. (2020) | An obvious physical health hazard occurs when moderate activity decreases by 20% to a maximum of 80% during home isolation compared with pre-isolation (normal conditions). |
| Tanji, Sugawara et al. (2017) | Psychological distress following natural disasters is associated with an increased risk of functional disability in elderly survivors. |
| Ishiki, Okinaga et al. (2016) | Walking for at least 30 minutes daily or three or more outdoor activities per week reduces the risk of dementia. |
| Liang and Guan (2023) | When comparing groups of older adults categorized by daily outdoor activity time (<2 hours, 2-4 hours, and more than 4 hours), physical and social health progressively improved and mental health dramatically improved with increasing activity time. |
| Maugeri, Castrogiovanni et al. (2020) | 30-40% decrease in moderate activity time and significantly decreased psychological well-being during home isolation |
| Lewis, Roden et al. (2021) | During the COVID-19-induced lockdown, moderate activity decreased from 30 to 10 minutes daily, contributing to increased insomnia and depressive symptoms. |
Conversely, a 30-40% decrease in moderate activity time is associated with a significant decrease in psychological well-being (Ozdemir, Cansel et al., 2020), and a 60-70% decrease in COVID-19 is associated with an increase in insomnia and depressive symptoms (Lewis, Roden et al., 2021; Maugeri, Castrogiovanni et al., 2020). This was considered [Criterion 5].
Estimation of impacts for social capitalThe function of social capital in contributing to community empowerment and resilience, including physical and mental health, in extraordinary situations such as disasters and infectious diseases is exemplified by qualitative (Bhakta Bhandari, 2014) and quantitative studies (Cherry, Walker et al., 2013; Hikichi, Aida et al., 2020; Hikichi, Aida et al., 2016). However, in this case, social capital worked effectively. Previous studies that have investigated how the "sense of connectedness" to maintain social capital has changed (Pitas and Ehmer, 2020; Yamada and Nobusada, 2021) have not provided a clear empirical view. Evidently, opportunities for face-to-face interaction would decrease in an environment of unanticipated behavioral restrictions, such as the unusual emergence of JBBs and the rapid spread of COVID-19. Considering this, the changes in connections derived from the responses to the questions mentioned above Q8, Q8–10 provide new facts about their impact on social capital.
Evaluation methodsThe following rules were used to evaluate the impact of this study on HWC:
Here, we assumed scenarios for the rate of reduction in the amount of activity for each group, as shown in the second row of Table 2. Table 2 shows each group’s sample size, average age, and approximate outdoor activity time estimated based on this reduction.
The results are organized as shown in Table 3.
For [Criterion 1], regarding the maintenance of physical health, Group 1 had the risk that some samples would not meet this criterion when the rate of decrease in activity time was the most severe at 100% (mean 113.18 min/day, S.D. 139.4). The proportion would be less than 10% of the population because the share of Group 1 is 14.4%. By contrast, the risks in Groups 2 and 3 were not as high. Note that these figures assume that the outdoor time from 9:00 to 16:00 is maintained and sufficient activity is possible. Therefore, if HWC causes fear and affects behavior during this period, the health hazards may be even more significant. Regarding [Criterion 3], which refers to the effects related to brain dysfunction and memory capacity, all groups were generally safe, even if a reduction in activity was considered.
For [Criterion 4], regarding avoidance and improvement of mental health problems, 50 minutes of walking is necessary to avoid their effects, and more than 4 hours of moderate outdoor activity is necessary to improve them. According to this criterion, Group 1 was partially risky in terms of avoidance, and the improvement was severe. Group 2 is partly risky in terms of improvement but generally safe in terms of avoidance. In other words, approximately 30% of the sample is, at best, the status quo and may be placed in a situation where improvement is difficult.
Finally, regarding [Criterion 5]—the duration of the decrease in activity level—Groups 1 and 2 were at risk of losing psychological well-being if the duration was prolonged, and Group 1 was at risk for insomnia and depressive symptoms if the decrease in activity level was significant. The critical point is whether the behavioral change is prolonged. Some observational studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that prolonged effects contribute to various health effects, including mental illness and poor organ system health (Marçal, Fernandes et al., 2020).
| Categories | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| ① Reduction rate | 75％±25% | 25%±25% | 0 |
| ｎ (Share to 1,456) | 210 (14.4 %) | 215 (14.8 %) | 1,031 (70.8 %) |
| Average age | 47.34 | 46.73 | 45.42 |
| ②Average “time spent outside the house” (morning + night) ：Answer for Q4 | 78.2 min / day | 79.4 min / day | 87.9 min / day |
| ③Estimated “time of outdoor activity after decrease in activity” (= ① x ②) | 0 ~ 39.1 min / day | 19.9 ~ 59.5 min / day | 87.9 min / day |
|
Average “time spent outdoors from 9 to 16 hours (Answer for Q4) + ③” ※ the former is for the most significant rate of decrease, the latter for the smallest rate of decrease |
113.2 min / day (S.D. 139.4), 152.3 min / day (S.D. 176.3), |
134.1min / day, (S.D. 158.3), 173.8 min / day (S.D. 204.7), |
203.3 min / day (S.D. 239.3) |
| Categories | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| [Criterion 1] Habitual walking for 20–80 min/day | Some risks | Generally Safe | Safe |
| [Criterion 3] Habitual walking for approximately 30 min/day to maintain cognitive function and memory. | Generally Safe | Safe | Safe |
| [Criterion 4] 50 minutes of walking to avoid mental health problems and 4 hours of walking to improve them. | Some risks regarding avoidance. Improvement is severe. | Improvement is partly risky. Avoidance is safe |
Generally Safe |
| [Criterion 5] A 30-40% decrease in the duration of moderate activity decreases psychological well-being, and a 60-70% decrease in moderate activity increases insomnia and depressive symptoms. | The risk depends on the situation. | It depends on the situation and affects subjective well-being. Insomnia and depressive symptoms are safe. | Safe |
Figure 3 shows the results of an 11-point scale measuring the degree of constraint and stress associated with behavioral changes owing to HWC in Q7. Criterion 2 indicates that the risk of dysfunction is significantly higher when accompanied by a clear sense of psychological constraints or stress. Following this criterion, the middle option in Figure 3, 50% or more, was selected, representing approximately 10% of the sample set. It is likely that measures for these so-called "high-risk groups," specifically a counseling system, would effectively mitigate the risk. Following this criterion, the middle option in Figure 3, 50% or more, was selected, representing approximately 10% of the sample set. It is likely that measures for these so-called "high-risk groups," such as a counseling system, would effectively mitigate the risk.
The age structure of this 10% "high-risk group" is not statistically significantly different from that of the 1,456 participants who responded to Q7 (χ2 test: p>0.05). However, the sampling in this study did not provide adequate information to identify individual attributes that require support because the assignment was not based on the population's age structure. To effectively promote such measures, future studies should precisely identify the age groups and genders that form high-risk groups.
Responses to Q8–Q10 were evaluated in terms of the main components of social capital (Bhandari and Yasunobu, 2009): internal ties among family members, horizontal ties with residents, and vertical ties with administrative officials. By assigning a score of -2 to 2 on the 5-point Likert scale and tabulating the total scores, we obtained the following:
The results showed that all relationships were strengthened, but family ties were the strongest.
In summary of hidden cost estimation, the HWC-induced reduction in activity was observed in a minority of the sample set, although half may cause a significant reduction in activity. Physical health risks may become apparent if the reduction in activity owing to HWC exceeds 50% of the previous level. A practical concern is that a decrease in human activity may increase the activity of JBBs and expand the area and frequency of HWC. A more rigorous quantification of behavioral change is a future challenge for strengthening appropriate and effective conflict interventions.
Besides above, the fact that various types of ties were strengthened at different levels by the HWC has pragmatic implications although social capital cannot be strictly evaluated in terms of ties. Specifically, the experience of facing the risks of HWC can be interpreted as potentially promoting residents’ voluntary acts of defense and community-based management activities.
However, the above simple calculation method is insufficient as a basis for policy recommendations. To demonstrate the above possibilities, rigorous quantification of social capital changes and analysis of their factors are required. for a deeper understanding.
The lack of attention to the negative impact of HWC fear and anxiety on physical, mental, and social relational capital is remarkable, and lessons from regional studies have shown that we should pay attention to the reality of what is happening in local lives (Raycraft, 2023).
This study focused on the JBB and found a lack of interest in Japan regarding HWC, other than crop damage and bodily injuries, to be problematic. We then focused on the 2020 JBB anomaly in Ishikawa Prefecture. By understanding the behavioral changes that it caused among residents in the prefecture, we inferred the effects on health status and social capital that were at risk of developing because of this anomaly. The following results were obtained:
When behavioral change is such that residents abstain from almost all outdoor activities in the early morning and evening, a definite physical health risk is expected. The risk was extracted from a small portion of the population in the study area (almost 10 %). Physical health is generally considered safe if the amount of time spent outdoors is not significantly reduced. Regarding brain dysfunction and memory impairment, no risk manifested when the activity levels were investigated in this study.
If time spent outdoors does not decrease after HWC, it is unlikely that the risk will be sufficiently significant to cause mental health problems. However, if time spent outdoors is reduced by half, the status quo may not be maintained; if time spent outdoors is significantly reduced, mental health problems may not be avoided.
Furthermore, there is a risk of loss of psychological well-being if the period of reduced activity owing to decreased outdoor time is prolonged. This risk was extracted from 30% of the population in the study area. The risk of insomnia and depressive symptoms also significantly increased when the significant decrease in activity was prolonged.
If the symptoms caused by HWC related to JBB manifest in society, there would be negative social consequences in terms of weakening the rural community, which is maintained by the proactive self-governing behavior of its inhabitants. At the individual level, an increase in medical expenditure negatively affects household finances. Considering these adverse effects from a macro perspective, the former leads to the loss of the multifunctional roles of agricultural and rural communities that support disaster prevention, landscape formation, and biodiversity conservation. Conversely, the latter leads to increased social security costs, which is a significant issue in today's national finances.
The results show that the strict quantification of these "hidden costs" has certain limitations in terms of sampling accuracy and survey items. The relevance of relying on the situation of severe disasters and the spread of COVID-19 as an analogy in the context of relating risk perceptions to behavior change also needs to be reviewed. Assuming that perceptions of these social risks (Cherry, Galea et al., 2010; Cherry, Walker et al., 2013; Hu, Pai et al., 2018; Huang, K.-H. and Pai, 2019) and risk perceptions for HWC are equivalent does not have robust logic. Accumulation of data from various regions of Japan where black bear damage occurs frequently every year is essential for the development of this study.
It is essential to build evidence for public policies that support rural villages by improving them and accumulating more detailed analyses.
Conceptualization, Yamashita and Kishioka; methodology, Yamashita; investigation, Yamashita and Kishioka; resources, Yamashita and Kishioka; data curation, Yamashita and Kishioka; writing—original draft preparation, Yamashita; writing—review and editing, Yamashita and Kishioka.; supervision, Yamashita. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest associated with this manuscript.
The authors appreciate the Environment Department of the Ishikawa Prefectural Government for sharing valuable data on Japanese black bear sighting records.
