2025 Volume 13 Issue 2 Pages 288-302
Walking is an active mode of transport that does not cost money and is healthy. Supporting sustainable transport by transit requires people's willingness to walk as an alternative mode of transport for first/last mile trips. However, unlike in many cities in developed countries, there are various challenges for people to walk in some cities in developing countries. This study aims to explain why people prefer not to walk to access the nearest public transport (PT) stop. The research uses the city of Makassar in Indonesia as case study. Data are obtained from interviews with two types of groups within the similar population i.e., 192 samples of PT users (Bus-based) and 463 samples of non-PT users within the Makassar population. Descriptive statistics and thematic coding were used for data analysis. The results shows that 63.54% of the PT users are not willing to walk to/from the nearest stops to their destination. On the other hand, 48.60% of the non-PT users are not willing to walk to the nearest PT service despite the short distance. The main reasons why the respondents do not want to walk even for a short distance are due to owning/preferring motorized vehicles. Since most of the travel distance greater than 1km among residents with high dependency on private vehicles, walking infrastructure is not the main priority to support the implementation of the transit system.
There is strong evidence that walking as one type of physical activity can increase health and cognitive functions (World Health Organization, 2010). Besides the positive benefits for people's physical health, improving walking as a mode of transport also contributes to mitigating environmental and societal challenges by reducing traffic congestion, air pollution, and noise pollution. A study found that a walkable neighborhood design discourages the need for using or owning a private vehicle and encourages people to walk more (Ewing, R. and Cervero, 2001). In addition, walking with a better street environment improves people’s living quality (Xu and Ma, 2024).
Implementing a transit system means promoting a multimodal trip that involves walking at the start and the end of a trip. Walking and its supporting infrastructure are important components for a transit system to be successfully implemented. Therefore, providing appropriate walking infrastructure is an important element in transit system implementation to encourage the city’s residents to walk as a part of a multimodal trip using public transport (PT) service. The more active modes are used in the residents’ daily mobility the more potential there is to achieve sustainable transport goals.
Nevertheless, encouraging the city’s residents to walk in a city that highly depends on private vehicles becomes a challenge. The urban sprawl phenomenon within many cities has caused automobile dependency (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). Daily mobility by using private motorized vehicles has become a habit for the city’s residents and in the long term has become a mobility culture for most cities in Indonesia. Private motorized vehicles offer comfort, speed, and flexibility to the users. Moreover, automobile dependency has affected people’s willingness to walk since using private motorized transport offers shorter travel time and a more convenience trip. According to a study (Viergutz and Brinkmann, 2017), the efficiency and speed of motorized transport often outweigh the benefits of walking, especially in urban settings where time is a valuable resource. Shifting an automobile-dependent mobility culture to transit that involves walking as the mode of transport becomes a challenge especially for cities in Indonesia.
Nevertheless, despite private car offering shorter travel time, improvements in walking infrastructure have a significant impact in encouraging people’s willingness to walk. Distefano and Leonardi (2023) found that enhancing pedestrian infrastructure such as continuous and well-maintained sidewalks, can increase willingness to walk; for short trips and first/last mile connectivity the enhancement can be significant when the time difference between two types of modes is less. In such cases, the quality of walking infrastructure becomes a decisive factor.
Although a study by Althoff, Sosič et al. (2017) found that Indonesia has the lowest average daily steps (3500 steps on average), further investigation is needed to gain deeper insight into the research findings. The study's findings have been cited by Indonesian digital media (Dian, 2024; Susanti, 2022) Some claim Indonesians are the laziest walkers in the world based on their daily number of steps. Since the study only used physical activity from a smartphone application, the reasons behind the findings are difficult to explain, and further investigations on the lack of willingness to walk are needed. Based on (Tanan and Tungga, 2021), despite the cultural preference for motorized transport in Indonesian cities, various efforts to promote walking encounter challenges such as cultural barriers and inadequate walking infrastructure.
Various studies that focus on walking behavior and walking infrastructure have been published regarding Asian cities. However, studies on walking preferences are found more often in cities in developed countries such as New Zealand, the USA or Canada (see, e.g., Bozovic, Stewart et al. (2021); Piercy, Troiano et al. (2018); Clark and Scott (2016) or Europe (see, e.g., Hillnhütter (2022); Unbehaun, Gaupp-Berghausen et al. (2017)). In Indonesia, studies related to walking mainly focus on walking infrastructure (Lestari and Pramita, 2020; Tanan and Suprayoga, 2015) as well as pedestrians' characteristics and behaviors (Artawan, Wedagama et al., 2013; Trianingsih and Hidayah, 2014). Walking quality, the perception of the walking environment, and the perception of the walking conditions in Indonesia have not been researched yet. An exception is the study of (Alyani and Sumabrata, 2014), who explored the perception of pedestrians in a campus neighborhood. At least eight categories were identified as the reasons why people in Indonesia are not interested in walking. However, more studies are needed on walking challenges and barriers in developing countries to gain broader perspectives and a deeper understanding of why people in a country such as Indonesia are unwilling to walk.
A research topic when investigating walking is to look at its function as a mode of transport. In this respect, the walk to, from, or within the PT station can be seen as a crucial part of the PT system. By increasing people's willingness to walk to/from the station instead of using a car, the transport system can become more attractive, and thus, sustainable transport can be improved. Providing infrastructure for active modes is one of the primary considerations for the success of transit systems in integrating PT systems and promoting sustainable transport systems. Specifically in developing countries, research on the barriers and challenges of walking to/from PT stations still needs to be completed.
Nevertheless, exploring the first/last mile is necessary to make PT in those countries more attractive, comfortable, and safe. This paper explores why people prefer to avoid walking to access the nearest PT stop, using the city of Makassar in Indonesia as a case study. Moreover, the walking barriers or challenges many people in the city experience are investigated.
First, Section 2 provides an overview of current findings regarding walking as a mode of transport to reach PT stops, specifically in developing countries. Section 3 presents the method of this study. In Section 4, the results will be presented and discussed, followed by a conclusion and outlook in Section 5.
Walking as a mode of transport can be distinguished between (a) walking to destinations, (b) walking to public transport (PT) stops, and (c) walking for a recreational purpose (De Vos, Lättman et al., 2023). Specifically, considering walking to/from PT stops is important when researching how to make alternative modes of transport to the private car, such as PT, more attractive. Walking as an active transport mode is often part of multimodal trips since people still must walk from/to the nearest PT stop and from/to their destination (see, e.g., Gebhardt, Krajzewicz et al. (2016); European Environment Agency (2020)). As shown by Hillnhütter (2016) for Germany, 53% of the time spent taking PT is spent inside a PT vehicle, whereas 47% of the trip is made on foot (to, from, or between PT stations) – in total, over 90% of the PT trips in Germany include walking trips. However, people often prefer to choose a private vehicle for their daily trips since multimodal trips involve walking in the transfer process, which some people see as a disadvantage (Beirão and Cabral, 2007). In Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, private car usage reaches 88%, and only 1% of trips are done by walking (Deloitte, 2020). To improve the attractiveness of PT usage and encourage people to walk in developing countries, it is thus essential to investigate the reasons why walking to/from the stations is seen as a disadvantage.
The study of Alyani and Sumabrata (2014) described at least eight categories that discourage people from walking in a city in Indonesia, including health, comfort, time and distance, the value of money, facilities, weather, and recreational and social aspects. Moreover, in some cities in Indonesia, a lack of walking infrastructure, such as missing sidewalks, increases the risk of an accident (Lestari and Pramita, 2020; Mayona and Azhari, 2013), which also discourages walking in the city.
The availability of a sidewalk alone will not induce walking, however, combined with other factors it may influence the willingness to walk: An area with higher density, mixed-land use, high street connectivity, and appropriate pedestrian lane availability can significantly encourage people to walk (Saelens and Handy, 2008). At least for a short trip, a walkable neighborhood with high density can discourage the use of motorized vehicles (Bozovic, Stewart et al. (2021); (Ewing, R., 2021; Ewing, R. and Cervero, 2001; Ewing, R. H., 1999; Tiwari, Nigro et al., 2023). Moreover, the availability and proximity of PT stops can also increase the willingness to walk (Daniels and Mulley, 2013).
Next to these rather infrastructural and built environmental factors, the perceived quality of the walking environment is also essential to consider when researching walking (Bozovic, Stewart et al., 2021; Guzman, Arellana et al., 2022). Walkability is often measured in terms of objective, quantifiable factors (e.g., density, connectivity); however, the subjective factors of the walking environment, such as the sojourn quality of the neighborhood, including greenery, arcade facades or urban design adapted to the human scale, or the subjective safety also influences people’s willingness to walk (Gehl, 2016; Xu and Ma, 2024).
Despite walking supporting the efficiencies in the transport system, environmental factors can be considered as barriers to walking, such as factors that are affected by the climate or the region, such as heat and humidity, precipitation, and daylight availability. These factors vary significantly from region to region and from time of the year; thus, they have to be specifically considered when researching walking in different places. Even though the climate is an insignificant influence on walking trips in a case study in Australia (Brisbane) (Burke, Sipe et al., 2006), the result might differ for other places, such as Japan, where the temperature affects walking speed (Obuchi, Kawai et al., 2021). Moreover, crowdedness and noise level also affect people’s willingness to walk (Xu and Ma, 2024).
People in Japan walk faster in winter than in summer as a heat production mechanism. The study of Sulaiman and Zubir (2004) described that the lack of shaded elements makes walking uncomfortable in a tropical city. Therefore, they suggest verandah ways (a continuous arcade) be created along the street together with trees to provide more shade as catalysts for walking in a tropical city.
This study explores the barriers and challenges of walking to/from public transport PT stations in a developing country and why people avoid walking to the nearest PT station (Bus & Paratransit). Therefore, this study uses the city of Makassar, Indonesia, as a case study. In Indonesia, Makassar is a mid-sized city with ±1,4 million inhabitants (Makassar, 2022). As a city in a tropical country, heat, humidity, and the rainy season are the typical climate conditions in Makassar, Indonesia.
Makassar is also the primary city center of the Mamminasata agglomerated region. The map of the research area also shows the route of the mass transport service within Makassar city and its surrounding area (Figure 1). As shown in Figure 1, the yellow line (Bus route) serves beyond the Makassar city boundary within Mamminasata metropolitan area (a grey area) that consists of Maros, Gowa, and Takalar regencies.
Currently, Makassar has various PT services such as bus, paratransit (Petepete), ride-hailing services, and the two (Ojek) and three-wheelers (Bentor/Bajaj) informal public transportation services. Only bus and paratransit that have fix fare price i.e. IDR 4.600 ($0,28) and IDR 8.000 ($0,49), respectively; other public transportation fares are determined by the distance of the trip. Moreover, only the bus has fixed stops. Other PT services do not have fixed stops.
According to the Mamminasata Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (2020), about 80% of the trips, primarily by private vehicles in the Mamminasata agglomerated area, occur in Makassar. On the other hand, the study of Natalia, Nieland et al. (2023) shows that the average distance to access PT services in Makassar is about ±800m.
The population of this study is Makassar residents. The subjects of this study comprised 192 PT users (Bus based) and a sample of 463 non-PT users within the Makassar population. In this study, two types of sample determination were used i.e., purposive sampling for the PT users and simple random sampling for non-PT users. The two types of samples were selected to include the perception of people from two different points of view, i.e., 1) from the perspective of PT users as a representation of people who have the experience to access PT stops and have a high probability of walking to the PT stop nearby, and 2) from the perspective of non-PT users who rarely walk on their daily trips and mostly use private vehicles. A mixed-method approach has been widely used in various studies to achieve a robust, deeper nuance and context as well as a comprehensive understanding of the research aims (Baškarada and Koronios, 2018; Clark and Scott, 2016; Creswell and Creswell, 2017; Moody, Wang et al., 2019; Tiznado-Aitken, Lucas et al., 2020).
An online survey that includes open-ended questions was conducted for this study. The links to the questionnaires were shared using group chat, email, and direct contact. The sample questions that were asked to the PT users (n=192) included: ‘What transport modes did you use to the nearest bus stop? Why did you choose this mode?’On the other hand, the questions for the non-PT users (n= 463), among others, addressed questions such as‘Are you willing to walk to the nearest bus stop? Please provide the reasons for the answer.’ These questions were asked to gain a broader context of urban mobility to support transit system implementation. As studies suggest, walking plays a fundamental role in the transportation system. Moreover, improving pedestrian quality and safety can encourage people to prefer walking over motorized vehicles (Wibowo, Tanan et al., 2015). The non-PT users are the main target for transit development. Implementing transit-oriented urban mobility requires a major shift from using private motorized vehicles to using public transportation where the non-PT users are the main target. The data collection was conducted in June-August 2022.
Descriptive statistics and thematic coding were used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics describe the overall findings and characteristics (percentage) of the PT users and non-PT users regarding their willingness to walk to the PT service/stops. Thematic coding was used to analyze all the answers to the open-ended questions of the respondents regarding the reasons behind their willingness/unwillingness to walk, resulting in a categorization of all the answers.
The respondents’ background in this study is described as follows. Most of the public transport (PT) users are female (74.04%). Data shows that 94% of PT users and 96% non-PT users own motorized private vehicles. Based on the results, both groups always have the option to use motorized private vehicles. However, some of them choose to use public transportation. Most of the non-PT users are also female (56.16%) female. The dominant (>40%) age of the respondents in both groups is 17-21 years old. Most of the trip purposes for PT users and non-PT users are for work/education (>70%).
As mentioned in the methodological section, this study analyzes the experiences and opinions of two groups, i.e. PT users and non-PT users. Based on the PT users’ view, the study reveals that, only 36.46% of users prefer to walk to or from the nearest bus stop, and most of them (63.54%) prefer not to walk (Table 1). These users are dropped off by motorcycle or car to the nearest stop. On the other hand, the survey on non-PT users shows that 49% prefer to walk to reach their destination if within a walking distance of less than 500m, and 48.60% are not willing to walk at all. Additionally, 1.94% of users provided no answers. The detailed reasons for willingness and unwillingness to walk are described separately in Table 2 and Table 3.
The current number of registered motorized vehicles in Makassar is ±2 million. The number is significantly higher than the number of Makassar residents (±1,4 million people). Based on these data, it can be argued that all households in Makassar own more than one motorized vehicle. As described previously, >90% of the respondents own private motorized vehicles; therefore, addressing their need to shift from using private motorized vehicles into using public transportation and walking is essential. Moreover, since its implementation in 2021 the number of bus-based users has gradually increased. Therefore, people always have the option of whether to use a private vehicle or a bus that can be combined with walking.
| Preferences | PT User (%) | Non-PT User (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Willing to Walk | 36.46 | 49.46 |
| Not Willing to Walk | 63.54 | 48.60 |
| No Answer | 0 | 1.94 |
| Total | 100 | 100 |
When public transportation is reliable, especially in terms of scheduling, people can plan their travel time effectively. Despite traffic congestion and the high costs and maintenance associated with car use, travel time becomes less of an issue in a multimodal trip using public transport. Therefore, promoting walking remains essential.
Reasons for lack of willingness to walkThe PT users and the non-PT users stated different reasons why they are not willing to walk. The reasons are grouped into eight categories, as described in Table 2.
| Reasons for Lack of Willingness to walk | Keywords derived from the interview answers of Makassar Population | PT Users (%) | Non-PT Users (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Longer distance | Too far, takes longer time, wasting time, too far for walking in <500m, takes more effort/energy, not efficient | 7.29 | 9.29 |
| High temperature | Too hot, sweating, tiredness, exhausted | 0.00 | 1.94 |
| Uncomfortable | Not used to walking, carrying many kinds of stuff, sense of security. | 0.00 | 1.73 |
| Safety | Lack of safety, high risk, threat, risk of accident, too much traffic, too dangerous, | 0.00 | 1.94 |
| Poor infrastructure conditions | Lack of walking infrastructure, insufficient, discontinued path, poor pavement material, conflicted function | 0.00 | 3.46 |
| Health | Weakness, tiredness, age, exhausted, exposure to pollution | 0.00 | 6.48 |
| Owning/preferring motorized vehicle | Easy to access, no need to walk, lazy to walk, faster, practical | 56.25 | 16.63 |
| Unwillingness to Walk | Not mentioned | 0.00 | 7.13 |
| Total | 63.54 | 48.60 | |
Note: the total amount in this come from the number of respondents giving the answer of the reasons not willing to walk as described in Table 1. There is 1.94 % of respondents of non-PT users that do not provide answers.
Table 2 shows that the PT users prefer not to walk since most of them own a private vehicle (mainly motorcycle). Environmental constraints are not mentioned by the PT users since most of them are mainly dropped-off at the nearest bus stop and continue their trip by bus. These people represent those that need PT in their daily lives particularly for long distance trips; the cost of traveling by bus over long distance is relatively cheaper than other types of PT services. Observing this type of mobility culture among the PT users shows that developing the transit system component for first/last mile trips does not place walking infrastructure as the main priority as suggested by various literature. The data show that most of the respondents (>70%) travel more than >1Km to the nearest bus stop. The high temperature and lack of walking infrastructure cause a lack of willingness to walk. Moreover, the low-density development particularly in the suburban makes it challenging for the mass transport service to operate in an effective and efficient way. On the other hand, while the dominant reason for unwillingness to walk among the non-PT users is also due to the private vehicle ownership (16,63%), they also mention other reasons such as longer distance (9,29%), and health (6,48%). The results also show that some people simply do not have the willingness to walk without mentioning any reasons.
In addition, poor walking infrastructure conditions make the users feel uncomfortable due to the different heights of the pavement, which can also cause the risk of stumbling. These reasons are mainly described by non-PT users. Insufficient walking infrastructure also threatens safety and increases the risk when people must walk in the same lane as other motorized vehicles. In some areas of Makassar, most parts of the pedestrian lanes are used by street vendors or for parking. These conflicting functions of pedestrian lanes make it difficult for people to walk comfortably because they must walk in a narrow space. Additionally, a discontinuous lane and pavement material threatens safety and increases risks. In some areas, pedestrian lanes are not even available, as examples from Makassar’s pedestrian infrastructure are shown in Figure 2.
(Source: own pictures)
Other respondents among the non-PT users are not willing to walk due to physical limitations, age, exhaustion, and desire to avoid exposure to pollution. Due to the lack of walking infrastructure, most of the time, pedestrians must walk in a same lane as motorized vehicles. During traffic congestion, pedestrians can directly inhale the polluted air (Figure 3, left). Moreover, the sides of the road sometimes have no appropriate pavements, which expose the users to dirt and dust. Once the wind blows the dust up, pedestrians must contend with pollution and dust (Figure 3, right).
As mentioned before, owning or preferring a motorized vehicle is the main reason for both groups' lack of willingness to walk. Respondents on both groups stated that using motorized vehicles is more practical and faster. Unlike the PT Users, the non-PT user group is more dependent on private vehicles (>80%); therefore, the willingness to walk is lower than in the PT users.
The participants discussed various reasons, describing their willingness to walk. The according keywords were grouped into seven categories, as shown in Table 3. Saving PT costs, shorter distances, comfort, and health are some reasons that encourage people to walk.
| Reasons for Willingness to walk | Keywords derived from the interview answers of Makassar Populations | PT Users (%) | Non-PT Users (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Saving cost | Cheaper, reduce the transport cost, more efficient | 7.29 | 1.51 |
| Short distance | Short distance (<500m), reachable, not too far | 18.23 | 11.66 |
| Health/exercise | Reduce pollution, healthier body, reduce weight, physical exercise | 0.00 | 10.80 |
| Comfortability | Avoiding traffic congestion, avoid parking, sightseeing, used to walking, enjoying walking, practical | 6.77 | 3.67 |
| If infrastructure is available | Safe and comfortable infrastructure, a separate lane for pedestrians, a crossing lane, shades, and good connectivity to the public transport stop | 0.00 | 3.89 |
| If the weather is good | Nice weather, lower temperature, no rain, not exposed to the sun | 0.00 | 1.08 |
| Situational Context and personal characteristics | Healthy condition, not carrying heavy kinds of stuff, not in a hurry, time and need concern | 4.17 | 4.32 |
| Willing to Walk | Not mentioned | 0.00 | 12.53 |
| Total | 36.46 | 49.46 | |
Note: the total amount in this come from the number of respondents giving the answer of the reasons of willingness to walk as described in Table 1. There is 1.94 % respondents of non-PT users that do not provide answers.
In this study, PT costs are a decisive factor for the treatment group. The basic transport cost for a short distance (±500m) on a ride-hailing service is about IDR10,000 (by motorcycle), so walking is much cheaper for a short-distance destination. If the PT users pay for the bus (IDR4,600,-) and add another cost for the first/last mile mode of transport, such as a motorcycle, the cost will be about IDR14,600,- for one trip. In a month (22 working days), the cost will be IDR 759.200, -. The cost equals 18% of Makassar's minimum wage (IDR3,500,000/month). Regarding owning a private motorcycle, the fuel cost for short-distance trips is about IDR500,000/month ($32.28/month); longer-distance trips will cost more, especially if the maintenance and tax are included. The cost will be even higher if the PT users choose a car as their first/last mile mode of transport. However, the overall overview of the non-PT users shows that most prefer to use a private vehicle for a short or long-distance trip. Once the non-PT users can buy a motorcycle/car, they tend to use it for their daily trips. Compared to flexibility and comfort, transport cost is not their primary consideration. Owning a private vehicle is not only a matter of necessity but also of social status.
The location of the bus service routes influences the willingness to walk due to the shorter distance stops that some respondents among PT users perceive. If the bus stop is located near their destination, it is a considerably short distance. For example, some bus stops are located at the shopping mall, campus, or other activity centers. Thus, the distance is less than 200m. On the other hand, some of Makassar’s population considers 500m too far due to the high temperature and lack of attractive walking infrastructure. Some respondents under 35 years old perceive 500m as a short distance, while older respondents consider 500m too far.
Regarding health/exercise reasons, some of Makassar’s population provide answers based on their expectations and concerns about the environment, such as promoting walking can help reduce pollution; walking as part of an exercise to achieve a healthier body. Most of them are respondents under 30 years old.
This study found that non-PT users enjoy walking in a pedestrian lane with good shade or greenery, as shown in Figure 4 (Left). The attractiveness of walking infrastructure is vital to encourage people to switch from motorized vehicles to walking, particularly to the nearest bus stop. The PT users are aware that using PT services includes walking in the process; therefore, despite the damage to the pavement material or lack of pedestrian lane at all (Figure 4, Middle and Right); the environmental factors are not mentioned as the reason in the lack of willingness to walk.
An appropriate infrastructure can help overcome most reasons why people are unwilling to walk. A separate pedestrian lane with good pavement material, continuous lanes, and a clear marking of crossings can reduce the risk of accidents and, at the same time, increase comfort. Moreover, continuous shade could resolve the complaints about the weather temperature, as seen in Singapore, which supports its city’s walkability by building roofs out of different materials over pedestrian lanes. For supporting transit development, providing walking infrastructure to/from the PT stops could encourage the willingness to walk and, thus, facilitate locals in using the PT service. As mentioned by some scholars, walking is part of a multimodal trip and a complement to PT (Bozovic, Stewart et al., 2021; Gebhardt, Krajzewicz et al., 2016). Hence, improving the quality of the walking environment can also increase the attractiveness of using PT and gradually encourage people to shift from private vehicles to non-motorized modes and PT on their daily trips.
This study found that >60% of the PT users travel >1km to the nearest PT stops. Most of the trips rely on motorized vehicle. In the early process of reducing the dependency on private vehicle and supporting transit development, another type of mode is needed besides the walking infrastructure. Paratransit services that play role as feeders for buses are suggested by some literatures to fill the accessibility gap in PT services. Integrated PT and feeder services can increase the PT users and reduce the number of trips made with private vehicles (Gkiotsalitis, 2022; Sachan and Mathew, 2020).
This study also reveals the association between the willingness to walk and the availability of appropriate walking infrastructure. The presumption shows the influence of walking infrastructure on people's preferences to walk. As Zakaria and Ujang (2015) described, pedestrians' satisfaction with walking is influenced by the quality of the pedestrian lane, continuous shade, and pedestrian linkages. Therefore, providing the appropriate walking infrastructure can encourage people to walk more and support a sustainable transport system. Moreover, comfortable and interesting walking routes also improve the attractiveness of walking: sightseeing and enjoying walking were mentioned by the study participants (Table 2), which is in line with a previous study on walking and cycling to work, which described the importance of landmarks and aesthetic built environments (Marquart, Stark et al., 2022). Despite these findings, walking infrastructure is not the sole reason for the (lack of) willingness to walk. Other reasons are health and economic capacity. Similar findings were also found in another mid-size city in Indonesia (Indradjati, 2024).
Moreover, the situational context in which the walk takes place impacts the willingness to walk (see section 4.2), specifically if people are not in a hurry. Similarly, Marquart, Stark et al. (2022) showed that leaving work or being close to one's home, i.e., not being in a hurry, improves the commuting experience. The current study's findings align with these findings and additionally show that the situational context should be considered when researching people's willingness to walk.
Considering ±500m as a walkable distance by some literature (Zafira and Puspitasari, 2022; Zakaria and Ujang, 2015; Zhong, Arisona et al., 2013), this study shows a different reality. People in both groups argue that ±500m distance is too far, while others assume it is considerably short. Hence, walking distance is not always a sufficient indicator for describing the willingness to walk since distances can be perceived differently. Often, this is related to the person’s characteristics or abilities, e.g., people who have more difficulties walking or are quickly exhausted might find 500m too long. Moreover, the street environment can influence whether a distance is perceived as too long, e.g., people might find it acceptable to take a longer route when it is stimulating and pleasant compared to a boring and unpleasant environment (Hillnhütter, 2016). As for the case of the city of Makassar, a study by Natalia, Nieland et al. (2023) showed that the average distance to access PT services in Makassar is about ±800m. Thus, it is even further away than the proposed 500m, and the need to make the walk to/from the PT stops appealing is even more important.
The research findings are primarily based on respondents’ perceptions and the researchers’ observations and experiences. While the precise measurement of improvement effects is challenging, the overwhelming consensus from respondent opinions and field observations clearly indicates that the City of Makassar suffers from poor walking environment and infrastructure conditions. Future research can address the issue with more in-depth interviews and observations to gain more insight into walking behavior based on the living laboratory. Moreover, measuring the impact of walking infrastructure improvements should be addressed in the future studies.
This study has explored the willingness to walk and the challenges and barriers of walking in the Makassar metropolitan area, Indonesia, regarding walking to the nearest PT station. The study shows that owning/preferring motorized vehicles is the main reason for the unwillingness to walk. The Mobility cultures that highly depend of private vehicle affect the implementation of transit system implementation particularly in the first/last mile support. Other reasons such as: long distances, high temperatures, discomfort, poor infrastructure facilities, poor health, are also the reasons why the participants who took part in the study and live in Makassar are not willing to walk even for short distances.
Some people assumed that the ±500m was already too far, while others assumed that the distance to the nearest PT station was considerably short. The perceived distance can vary and influence if people are willing to walk. More research is needed to understand the reasons behind perceived distances better and identify measures to make longer routes more acceptable. Despite some respondents being too lazy to walk, this reason does not quite represent the whole reason why Indonesians, especially people of Makassar, are not willing to walk. This study found that many people in both groups (>30%) remain willing to walk in their daily activities, especially to reach PT service, despite all the challenges and barriers.
The positive findings show that if the first/last mile service by walking is further developed, it can support the transit system in Makassar. However, since we found >60% of the PT users have travel distance >1km, other type of mode should be considered for the first/last mile support, such as paratransit that play role as the feeder for the bus service. At least for the current situation of Makassar’ mobility culture, walking infrastructure is not the main priority compared to feeder development as one strategy to increase the PT users. Further research is needed for this topic.
More research is needed to explore the walking behavior and incentives needed for people to walk to PT stations in developing countries following infrastructure. In addition, study to measure the effect of walking infrastructure improvement should be addressed in the future. The research can also cover communication and education on the environmental and health benefits of walking. If the walking conditions and quality of the walking environment are adapted to people's needs, people are encouraged to walk more, and thus, a sustainable transport system can be achieved. However, citizen mobility culture cannot be overlooked as a reason for people's willingness to walk.
Conceptualization, V.V.N and S.W; methodology, V.V.N., S.W investigation, V.V.N and S.W.; writing—original draft preparation, V.V.N, S.W.; writing—review and editing, V.V.N., S.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of the paper.
The authors' gratitude goes to the Faculty of Engineering and Institute for research and community service of Hasanuddin University for funding this research. The authors also thank Heike Marquart from Institute of Transport Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR) for the valuable input and comments to improve this article substantially. The authors thank to all the reviewers for the valuable feedback to improve this paper.
