2025 Volume 13 Issue 2 Pages 25-40
The extensive circular mobility among daily commuters in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area is causing mobility inefficiencies, resulting in traffic congestion and economic and social losses. This situation stimulates the government to provide mixed-use housing in Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) zones, aiming to foster sustainable mobility through a compact living framework. The current provisioning system has struggled to commuters effectively, leading to persistently high levels of circular mobility. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the factors affecting the commuter need on the mixed-use housing in TOAD areas and preferences for the provisioning system. This influence was analyzed using the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) method, while preferences were analyzed using cross-tabulation. The preferences analysis referred to four indicators: ownership systems, price affordability, income, and unit size. The results showed that 65.94% of commuters expressed a need for mixed-use housing, stimulated by considerations such as travel distance and cost. Among all, 55.76% preferred a rental ownership system with a price of < 1 million IDR/month or 1-2 million IDR/month. The willingness to pay for the rental price depended on income levels. And those who want to buy, prefer the lowest price of the mixed-use housing. Those characteristics and preferences should been considered by the government or developer in obtaining the sustainable TOD areas.
Urban areas are development centers and economic engines having a concentration of global population distribution in the zones. This concentration amounted to 50% in 2018 and is expected to increase to 66% - 70% by 2050 (Shen, Ochoa et al., 2011; Wei, Huang et al., 2015). The demographic trend has led to the evolution of metropolitan areas related to urban sprawling issues, which is the extensive use of private motorized vehicles for circular mobility among daily commuters. The reliance on private vehicles causes high levels of congestion and the associated impacts, posing threats to urban sustainability across environmental, social, and economic aspects. These challenges further include the loss of green space, increased pollution, social instability, higher energy consumption, as well as inefficiencies in travel costs, time, and distances (Habibi and Asadi, 2011; Oueslati, Alvanides et al., 2015; Shen, Ochoa et al., 2011).
The problems triggered the presence of the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) concept as a global response to overcome urban sustainability problems, particularly in sprawling metropolitan areas contending with inefficient commuter mobility (Abdi and Lamíquiz-Daudén, 2022). In this regard, the concept not only focuses on integrating mass public transportation to achieve equitable accessibility but also underscores the importance of mixed-use housing to achieve spatial sustainability through compact and walkable living arrangements (Thomas and Bertolini, 2017). The provision of mixed-use housing plays a crucial role that correlates with the five TOD principles proposed by Ewing and Cervero (2010) namely density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit. Mixed-use housing is generally defined as multifunctional residences integrating commercial, office, and service functions within the same vertical structure. Providing mixed-use housing in TOD zones can increase mobility efficiency by 25-30% compared to only a 3% improvement without the provision. This efficiency is attributed to the accessible, compact living approach facilitated by the distance between housing, services, and economic facilities enabling convenient walking proximity (Dittmar and Poticha, 2004; Fol and Gallez, 2014; Pereira, Banister et al., 2019).
Proximity not only reduces the use of private motorized vehicles but also decreases circular mobility, a type of daily commuter movement characterized by constant activity without settling aimed at maximizing individual utility (Constant and Zimmermann, 2011; Hugo, 2013; Schneider and Parusel, 2011; Stutzer and Frey, 2008; Wickramasekara, 2011). The reductions not only improve metropolitan biophysical conditions but also enhance the flexibility of daily commuters’ time and travel options (Papa and Bertolini, 2015). This correlates with the primary objective of sustainable mobility, seeking to improve living standards by reducing disparities in opportunities. It further contributes to urban sustainability by promoting equity in employment, housing, basic services, social infrastructure, and transportation (Wisanggeni, Putra et al., 2022).
The aforementioned advantages have prompted major cities and metropolitan regions to develop mixed-use housing in TOD zones, one of which is the Jakarta Metropolitan area, as an agglomeration area with the most populous circular mobility level in Indonesia, reaching 4.41 million people/day, with 79% relying on the use of private motorized vehicles (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2023). In accordance with TOD guidelines in the Minister of Spatial Planning Regulation No.16/2017, the provision of mixed-use housing is one of the main focuses in developing TOD zones in the Jakarta Metropolitan area, which aims to increase population accessibility to mass public transportation transit points, main activity areas, and other supporting facilities within walking distance to achieve the transformation of private vehicle use to mass and non-motorized public transport. As the main focus of development, the government allocates 60% of the TOD zones for residential areas with high density intensity (Spatial Planning Minister, 2017). However, reality shows that the absorption rate of TOD-based mixed-use housing was only 74%, lower than the absorption rate of non-TOD single-use housing, which was 81% (Kompas, 2023a). In this case, the backlog of mixed-use housing built in TOD zones has reached 20-30 percent (Kompas, 2023b). This was because the development of mixed-use housing has not addressed the needs and preferences of daily commuters in the Jabodetabek Metropolitan area, who have the highest level of interest (Rahardjo and Ruskanada, 2024). The high interest of daily commuters was motivated by their need for the efficiency of cost, distance, and travel time, which have been difficult to achieve through circular mobility between the main activity center in the Jakarta and residential centers in Jakarta' four satellite cities (Kompas, 2023c). These descriptions highlight the importance of studying the need preferences and influencing factors of daily commuters on the development of mixed-use housing in the Jakarta metropolitan TOD zones, as this research objective. In line with this goal, Hawkins, Best et al. (1997) emphasizes that in marketing theory, preferences play an important role in connecting consumer demand and producer supply to create a balanced and optimal trading process, which has a significant impact on increasing consumer interest in using the product.
In this study, the discussion of needs preferences focuses on the Willingness To Pay (WTP) aspect, consistent with the empirical evidence which indicates that the imbalance between income level and price of TOD mixed-use housing was the main trigger for the low purchase and rental by daily commuters in Metropolitan Jakarta (Kompas, 2023b). The WTP discussion describes the affordability level of purchase and rental costs for mixed-use housing based on daily commuter income level. Meanwhile, the discussion of influencing factors focuses on daily commuter mobility characteristics, which are divided into nine variables, corresponding to the main variables of circular mobility studies in the Jakarta metropolitan area (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2014, 2019, 2023; Hidayati, 2021; Pratama, Yudhistira et al., 2022). The two topics of discussion, the need preferences and influencing factors, contribute to expanding the theoretical framework of TOD studies, which are currently focused on environmental aspects (Hasibuan, Hayati Sari and Mulyani, 2022; Hasibuan, Hayati Sari, Soemardi et al., 2014), social-cultural (Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana, 2022), and spatial change (Hasibuan, Hayati Sari and Mulyani, 2022). In addition, this study also contributes to assisting central and regional government efforts in overcoming the backlog problem in the provision of mixed-use housing in TOD zones, particularly in terms of property development employing market segmentation profiles.
The study selected the Jakarta metropolitan area commonly referred to as Jabodetabek, as the case study location. Jabodetabek evolved from the agglomeration of Jakarta as the urban core and the five peripheral areas namely Bogor, Depok, South Tangerang, Tangerang, and Bekasi functioning as satellite regions (Figure 1).
This area covers 5,489 square kilometers and has a population density of 9,980 people per square kilometer as of 2023, making it an ideal location for transit-oriented development. Over the years, the number of daily commuters in this area has significantly increased. For instance, there was a tenfold increase between 1985 and 2002 (JICA, 2004), a 1.5-fold rise from 2000 to 2010 (JICA, 2012), and a 0.25-fold increase in 2014 Central Statistics Agency, 2014). In 2019, the number of daily commuters decreased to 1.2 million (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2019) from 1.38 million in 2014 (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2014). Early after the pandemic in 2022, the number of daily commuters had already reached 1.2 million, according to Wisanggeni, Putra et al. (2022).
The significant number of daily commuters has led to a high volume of circular mobility, which has resulted in a decline in agricultural land, increased pollution and emissions, and economic losses at a national and regional level (Rustiadi, Pravitasari et al., 2021). The inefficiencies in travel time and costs have contributed to a deterioration in the quality of life, causing various socioeconomic challenges such as increased stress, decreased productivity, household estrangement, and personal and income waste. Therefore, it is essential to optimize the use of TOD mixed-use housing by daily commuters to minimize the flow of circular mobility and mitigate its harmful impacts.
Data collectionData was collected from August to September 2023 using a hybrid survey questionnaire online and offline. All respondents were daily commuters, a group of people who travel between regional borders (i.e. cities or districts) regularly for main activities. Based on the definitions, daily commuters can also be interpreted as someone who carry out circular mobility. In this study, respondents were randomly selected based on two criteria including (1) Jabodetabek’s daily commuter before and after the COVID pandemic era and (2) being ≥ 18 years old. According to the Slovin calculation, with an error rate of 2% and a population of 1.2 million (Wisanggeni, Putra et al., 2022), the total number of respondents is 1,697 people. Table 1 shows the number of respondents collected from each of the six regions, while the percentage represents the proportion of the respondents collected in each region compared to the total number of respondents.
| Study Area | Number of Respondents | Percentage of Respondent (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Jakarta | 142 | 8.37 |
| Bogor | 244 | 14.38 |
| Depok | 358 | 21.10 |
| Tangerang | 403 | 23.75 |
| South Tangerang | 120 | 7.07 |
| Bekasi | 430 | 25.33 |
| Total | 1,697 | 100 |
The questionnaire was divided into three sections and administered to obtain comprehensive data (Table 2). The first section included nine questions focusing on mobility characteristics such as transportation modes, weekly mobility, activity system, leave and return time, ease of access, travel distances, time, and costs. Multiple-choice was further used for this section, facilitating structured responses from respondents. The second part assessed the respondent’s need for mixed-use housing. Using a multiple-choice format, respondents showed the need for mixed-use housing on two points, where 1 represented a need and 2 suggested no need. The third section addressed the primary indicators of housing preferences, consisting of ownership systems, and unit size that reflected the socio-cultural condition, as well as price affordability expressing economic conditions (Rahardjo and Ruskanada, 2024). Multiple-choice format was also incorporated in this section to assign quantitative value to qualitative data.
| Variable | Subvariable | Indicator |
|---|---|---|
| Mobility Characteristic | Transportation Modes | Mass public Transportation |
| Private Vehicle | ||
| Paratransit | ||
| Weekly Mobility | < 3 days/week | |
| 3 days/week | ||
| 4 days/week | ||
| 5 days/week | ||
| > 5 days/week | ||
| Activity System | Offline | |
| Online | ||
| Hybrid | ||
| Leave Time | 05:00-05:30 | |
| 05:45-07:00 | ||
| 07:15-09:00 | ||
| 09:15-11:00 | ||
| >11:00 | ||
| Return Time | 12:00-14:30 | |
| 15:00-17:00 | ||
| 17:15-20:00 | ||
| 20:15-21:00 | ||
| >21:00 | ||
| Ease of Access | Difficult | |
| Easy | ||
| Travel Distance | 0-15 km | |
| >15-25 km | ||
| >25-40 km | ||
| >40 km | ||
| Travel Time | 30-45 minutes | |
| >45 minutes-1 hours | ||
| >1-2 hours | ||
| >2 hours | ||
| Travel Cost | 0-0.5 million/month | |
| >0.5-1 million/month | ||
| >1-2 million/month | ||
| >2 million/month | ||
| Need Preference | Need | |
| Not Need | ||
| Mixed-use Housing Preference | Ownership System | Buy |
| Rent | ||
| Affordability of Purchase Price | <200 | |
| 200-400 | ||
| >400-600 | ||
| >600 | ||
| Affordability of Rental Price | <1 million/month | |
| 1-2 million/month | ||
| >2-4 million/month | ||
| >4-6 million/month | ||
| >6 million/month | ||
| Unit Size | 20 m2 | |
| > 20-40 m2 | ||
| > 40-60 m2 | ||
| > 60 m2 |
The results obtained from the questionnaires and observations were analyzed using various methods. Frequency analysis was used to examine mobility characteristics aiming to identify general patterns of commuter circular mobility (Figure 2). Subsequently, the PLS-SEM technique was applied to assess the influence of mobility characteristics on the required level of mixed-use housing provision, thereby enabling user segmentation Figure 2). PLS-SEM analysis served as a useful tool for understanding the relationships between variables in theoretical models. The selection of PLS-SEM was based on the suitability for validating external data across various types of scales with abnormal assumptions and for evaluating the theoretical as well as complex relationships between exogenous and endogenous variables in social science studies (Hair and Alamer, 2022; Ringle, Wende et al., 2015).
Referring to the explanation, this study used the PLS-SEM method to measure the significant relationship between the mobility characteristics of respondents and the need for TOD mixed-use housing (Figure 2), represented by P (probability) values of ≤ 0.05 and the linearity was assessed based on the mean. Crosstab analysis was conducted to delve deeper into preferences for mixed-use housing, comprising ownership system, price affordability, and unit size (Figure 2).
The results of frequency analysis on mobility characteristics showed that 74.43% of respondents engaged in circular mobility with 37.90% using hybrid and 36.53% opting for offline options (Table 3). This mobility was generally carried out for 5 days/week representing 41.91% using mass public transportation which was denoted by 68.78%. Furthermore, 68.78% respondents frequently used transportation modes such as Commuter Rail, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), and Light Rail Transit (LRT) provided by Jabodetabek’s TOD system. The use of these modes was concentrated during peak hours, both leaving and returning time. The departure often occurred between 07:15 - 09:00 representing 39.15% of the total time and 05:45 - 07:00 signifying 38.15%, while returns were typically between 17:15 - 20:00 denoting 55.69%. Half of the respondents spent more than 1 - 2 hours per trip, leading to a total round trip exceeding 2 - 4 hours. Furthermore, the majority of respondents cover travel distances greater than 25 - 40 km accounting for 35.06%.
The comparison of percentage proportions in travel time and distance correlated with the results of the TomTom Index ( https://www.tomtom.com/traffic-index/ranking/) showing that the mean speed of road-based motorized vehicles including buses, cars, and motorcycles in Jakarta on weekdays was 25 km/hour. This reduced speed was attributed to the substantial number of respondents using road-based transportation modes including private vehicles, mass public transportation (BRT), and paratransit (Ojek Online) which reached 95.82% of the total population.
| Subvariables | Total (%) |
|---|---|
| Transportation Modes | |
| Mass public transportation | 68.78 |
| Private vehicles | 26.45 |
| Paratransit | 4.77 |
| Weekly Mobility | |
| < 3 days/week | 9.58 |
| 3 days/week | 10.78 |
| 4 days/week | 22.15 |
| 5 days/week | 41.91 |
| > 5 days/week | 15.58 |
| Activity Systems | |
| Offline | 36.53 |
| Online | 11.37 |
| Hybrid | 37.90 |
| Leave Time | |
| 05:00-05:30 | 9.03 |
| 05:45-07:00 | 38.55 |
| 07:15-09:00 | 39.15 |
| 09:15-11:00 | 10.84 |
| >11:00 | 2.43 |
| Return Time | |
| 12:00-14:30 | 2.40 |
| 15:00-17:00 | 25,15 |
| 17:15-20:00 | 55.69 |
| 20:15-21:00 | 10.17 |
| >21:00 | 6.59 |
| Travel Distance | |
| 0-15 km | 26.62 |
| >15-25 km | 27.92 |
| >25-40 km | 35.06 |
| >40 km | 10.4 |
| Travel Time | |
| 30-45 minutes | 42.77 |
| >45 minutes-1 hours | 3.01 |
| >1-2 hours | 50.00 |
| >2 hours | 4.22 |
| Travel Cost | |
| 0-0.5 million/month | 30.50 |
| >0.5-1 million/month | 44.63 |
| >1-2 million/month | 14.69 |
| >2 million/month | 10.18 |
| Ease of Access | |
| Difficult | 12.57 |
| Easy | 87.43 |
The analysis showed that 65.94% of respondents expressed a need for mixed-use housing within TOD zones. According to the SEM analysis, the high demand for TOD mixed-use housing was significantly influenced by mobility characteristics, as represented by the P value of 0.034 falling below the P value threshold of ≤ 0.05. Furthermore, the relationship pattern was linear evidenced by the positive mean value. This relationship pattern suggested that an increasingly unfavorable condition for circular mobility corresponded to a higher demand for mixed-use housing in TOD zones.
The infeasibility was represented by the conditions of the four mobility variables that influenced the demand. These variables included leave time (0.000), return time (0.000), offline activity (0.001), and weekly mobility (0.024). The P value showed that leave and return times have the greatest influence followed by offline activity and weekly mobility as depicted in Table 4.
| Subvariables | Original Sample (O) | Sample Mean (M) | Standard Deviation (STDEV) | T Statistics | P Values |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transportation Modes | -0.023 | -0.023 | 0.034 | 0.728 | 0.567 |
| Weekly Mobility | 0.058 | 0.059 | 0.026 | 2.254 | 0.024** |
| Activity System | -0.263 | 0.264 | 0.080 | 3.278 | 0.001* |
| Leaving Time | -0.153 | -0.152 | 0.024 | 6.403 | 0.000* |
| Returning Time | -0.164 | -0.164 | 0.024 | 6.401 | 0.000* |
| Travel Distance | -0.022 | -0.022 | 0.030 | 0.727 | 0.467 |
| Travel Time | -0.009 | -0.008 | 0.029 | 0.291 | 0.771 |
| Travel Cost | 0.030 | 0.030 | 0.027 | 1.113 | 0.266 |
| Accessibility Level | 0.041 | 0,041 | 0.028 | 1.475 | 0.140 |
*Significant in P < 0.05
The mean value for the leave time variable was negative, while the other three factors were positive. This suggested that respondents who had an earlier leave time required more mixed-use housing in TOD zones. Conversely, those with a later return time needed more TOD mixed-use housing. The mean value also showed that a greater number of weekly mobility instances led to a higher need for mixed-use housing, as shown in Table 5.
| Subvariables | Indicators | Need for TOD Mixed-use Housing | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes | No | ||||
| n | % | n | % | ||
| Leave Time | 05:00-05:30 | 138 | 8.13 | 54 | 3.18 |
| 05:45-07:00 | 467 | 27.52 | 199 | 11.73 | |
| 07:15-09:00 | 378 | 22.27 | 207 | 12.20 | |
| 09:15-11:00 | 96 | 5.66 | 92 | 5.42 | |
| >11:00 | 40 | 2.36 | 26 | 1.53 | |
| Subtotal: | 1,119 | 65.94 | 578 | 34.06 | |
| Return Time | 12:00-14:30 | 38 | 2.24 | 41 | 2.42 |
| 15:00-17:00 | 326 | 19.21 | 199 | 11.73 | |
| 17:15-20:00 | 578 | 34.06 | 281 | 16.56 | |
| 20:15-21:00 | 128 | 7.54 | 41 | 2.42 | |
| >21:00 | 49 | 2.89 | 16 | 0.93 | |
| Subtotal: | 1,119 | 578 | 34.06 | ||
| Activity System | Offline | 248 | 14.61 | 145 | 8.54 |
| Online | 271 | 15.97 | 149 | 8.78 | |
| Hybrid | 600 | 35.36 | 284 | 16.74 | |
| Subtotal: | 1,119 | 65.94 | 578 | 34.06 | |
| Weekly Mobility | < 3 days/week | 107 | 6.31 | 79 | 4.66 |
| 3 days/week | 121 | 7.13 | 86 | 5.07 | |
| 4 days/week | 127 | 7.48 | 61 | 3.60 | |
| 5 days/week | 591 | 34.83 | 265 | 15.62 | |
| > 5 days/week | 173 | 10.19 | 87 | 5.11 | |
| Subtotal: | 1,119 | 65.94 | 578 | 34.06 | |
According to the number of commuters needing mixed-use housing, 55.76% selected the rental system with 57.74% willing to pay 1-2 million IDR/month equivalent to 61 - 123 USD/month. In this case, individuals willing to rent for 1 - 2 million IDR/month had an income of 1.5 - 6 million IDR/month. Referring to Table 6, individuals with an income of 1.5 - 6 million IDR/month were willing to rent at a price < 1 or 1-2 million IDR/month in contrast to those with > 6 - 18.5 million IDR/month who tended to prefer prices > 2 - 4, > 4 - 6, and > 6 million IDR/month.
The crosstab results implied that the willingness level regarding rental price depended on income levels, as shown by the significance value of the relationship between income variables and rental prices. The significance value of the relationship was 0.001, smaller than the standard P value for the 95% confidence level (i.e. ≤ 0.005). A smaller P value suggested a stronger influence or relationship. Therefore, income greatly influenced the acceptance of rental prices with higher-income commuters more willing to accept higher prices.
The condition further applied to selling prices, where daily commuters with higher incomes were willing to purchase mixed-use housing at higher prices. For instance, those with an income of 1.5 - 6 million IDR/month were willing to buy mixed-use housing within the price range < 200 or 200 - 400 million IDR. Furthermore, commuters with an income > 6 - 18.5 million IDR/month were willing to buy properties priced at > 400 - 600 or > 600 million. Correlating with the descriptions, the significance value of the relationship between income level and willingness to pay selling prices was 0.001 showing a significant influence.
| WTP Value | Income Levels (million IDR/month) Percentage | Total | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <1.5 | 1.5-6 | >6-18.5 | >18.5 | ||
| Rental Prices (million IDR/month) | |||||
| <1 | 18.60% | 59.30% | 20.93% | 1.16% | 21.13% |
| 1-2 | 8.94% | 54.89% | 34.47% | 1.70% | 57.74% |
| >2-4 | 10.81% | 33.78% | 51.35% | 4.05% | 18.18% |
| >4-6 | 0.00% | 30.00% | 50.00% | 20.00% | 2.46% |
| >6 | 0.00% | 10.00% | 10.00% | 0.00% | 0.49% |
| Selling Prices (million IDR) | |||||
| <200 | 13.48% | 63.12% | 21.28% | 2.13% | 39.50% |
| 200-400 | 5.81% | 50.32% | 38.06% | 5.81% | 43.42% |
| >400-600 | 6.12% | 18.37% | 59.18% | 16.33% | 13.73% |
| >600 | 8.33% | 33.33% | 33.33% | 25.00% | 3.36% |
Based on the results of the Mobility Characteristics of Jabodetabek’s Daily Commuters, a significant 62.98% of respondents reported engaging in circular mobility distances exceeding 15 km, surpassing the maximum mean commuter mileage in 99 metro areas across 25 countries by 13.63 km (Moovit, 2020). Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana (2022) asserted that commuter mileage in Jabodetabek reflected housing affordability and social comfort related to familial proximity. This further showed individuals working during the prevailing phenomenon of gentrification and urban sprawl (Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana, 2022). These observations correlated with the explanation of Stutzer and Frey (2008) regarding circular mobility motives aimed at achieving a balance in individual utility. The population in suburban areas around the Jakarta has significantly growth in times, it differs from the several urban areas such as in Japan that has declining population that tendency observed in the suburb and branch classes of stations, as well as in the urban and inter-urban (Aoki, 2022).
Monthly travel costs predominantly fell within the range of > 0.5-1 million representing 44.63%. This suggested that most respondents allocated > 10%-20% of the monthly income, equivalent to the Jabodetabek Regional Minimum Wage of 5 million rupiah/month (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2019). The descriptions further suggested that the monthly travel costs mean of respondents exceeded the maximum limit set by the UN of 10%, showing a potential threat to economic welfare. Besides economic concerns, these mobility characteristics could also lead to transport fatigue despite 87.43% of respondents reporting easy access. Based on Doyla (2015) explanation of the relationship between mass public transportation density and transport fatigue, this problem potentially originated from the distribution of respondents in mass transit modes during peak hours on five working days.
Transport fatigue was defined as the psychological and physiological state experienced by individuals due to uncomfortable travel conditions (Kopytkov, Levchenko et al., 2018). This fatigue had implications for reduced productivity, diminished work quality, increased psychological distress, and household instability (Ilina, 2016). The trigger for transport fatigue included not only the density of mass public transportation but also the duration of trips with thresholds of ≥ 40 minutes for super large cities and ≥ 30 minutes for other regions (Sorokin and Kastornova, 2004). Sorokin and Kastornova (2004) further explained that individuals residing within a 5 km radius of the workplace exhibited 12% lower productivity compared to those within walking distance. The study also emphasized the importance of providing TOD mixed-use housing that facilitated compact living.
In light of the potential impact of transport fatigue on productivity and well-being, as highlighted by the need for TOD mixed-use housing to facilitate compact living. The results suggested a change in the mindset of Jabodetabek daily commuters towards a compact living method. A study conducted by Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana (2022); (Pongprasert, 2020) further showed that 52.8% of daily commuters in the Jakarta metropolitan area considered compact living to be unimportant. But this results are in line with the case in Bangkok (Pongprasert, 2020) which shows enthusiastic to live in TOD areas and also similar findings in factor to determine commuter in choosing residential location near a station were socioeconomics, travel characteristics, having a workplace located near an urban rail sation and the proximity of one’s residence to useful TOD activities.
However, this shift towards compact living also underscores the crucial role of affordability in housing choices, especially among daily commuters in Jabodetabek. The relationship between income level and willingness to pay for housing was found to be highly significant, with a value of 0.001, indicating a strong influence. Correlating to Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana (2022), the significant influence implied the important role of price for Jabodetabek’ daily commuters in housing selection, motivated by the economic status of either the middle or low class (Rukmana, 2015). However, this factor did not determine the type of ownership system selected. Lund (2006) found that commuters' preference for the rental system originated from the unfamiliarity with compact city living, in contrast to commuters in developed countries. Consequently, mixed-use housing was perceived only as transit spaces and not intended for long-term residency. This differs from the results of Hasibuan, Hayati S and Permana (2022) which showed commuters' preference for property rights in landed housing for prolonged family living arrangements. The observation correlated with the results showing that proximity to family was the last priority for commuters when selecting mixed-use housing. Based on the figure, the main priority factor for commuters was price affordability correlating with previous studies (Pongprasert, 2020) that income affected to the choosing of residential near transit stations. On the other hand, the supply of affordable mixed-use housing depends on the financial capacity of government or developer, where in the previous study stated the budget limitation is a bounded constrain which directly influence the development (Liu, Te Pai et al., 2018).
The objective of this research was to analyze the factors affecting to the commuter on the need for mixed-use housing in the Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) areas and their preferences for the provisioning system.. The results demonstrate that Jabodetabek commuters are those who make long trips, more than 15 km per day with a travel time of more than 1 to 2 hours per day. The cost they have to bear even reach 20% of their income. The study emphasized that the high demand of mixed-use housing within TOD areas was significantly influenced by mobility characteristics. There are four mobility variables that influenced the demand of mixed-use housing, sorting from the greatest to the lowest namely: leave tim, return time, offline activity, and weekly mobility. The interesting one is that, most of them choose to work offline or hybrid, very few carry out activities online.
Our results show that even commuter need the mixed-use housing, but they prefer to rent rather to buy it. The willingness level regarding rental price depended on income levels. Those commuters who want to buy the mixed-use housing, prefer to buy the lowest price. The mixed-use housing was perceived only as transit spaces and not intended for long-term residency. These results highlighted the importance of connecting the development of mixed-use housing in Habodetabek’s TOD areas With specific societal and mobility characteristics. Therefore, the government or developer should consider the preference of commuter for choosing the mixed-use housing in the TOD areas in the planning and providing the mixed-use house.
However, this research also has its limitations. One of the main shortcomings is that it focuses primarily on the Jabodetabek area, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other regions or countries with different socio-economic contexts, infrastructure, and commuting behaviors. Additionally, the study primarily relies on self-reported data, which could introduce bias or inaccuracies in understanding commuter preferences. Future research could expand the scope to include more diverse urban areas and explore other factors, such as environmental impacts or the psychological effects of commuting, which may further influence the demand for mixed-use housing in TOD areas. Despite these limitations, this study contributes valuable insights into the importance of considering mobility patterns, socio-economic factors, and commuter preferences in the planning and development of mixed-use housing within transit-oriented development areas. By highlighting the significance of affordability and commuter behaviors, the research provides a foundation for future policies and developments that can better align with the needs of urban residents.
Conceptualization, H.S.H., B.N.E., and M.E.M.; methodology, H.S.H, B.N.E., and F.W.A.; software, B.N.E., and F.W.A.; investigation, H.S.H.; resources, H.S.H., and B.N.E.; data curation, H.S.H.; writing—original draft preparation, H.S.H., B.N.E., and F.W.A; writing—review and editing, H.S.H., B.N.E., M.E.M. and F.W.A.; supervision, H.S.H. and M.E.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of the paper.
The author appreciated all parties who helped with the data collection. Sincere appreciation was also extended to anonymous reviewers for corrections and comments but all mistakes bear on the authors.
The research was funded by The University of Indonesia Research Grant 2023 PUTI Funding grant number NKB-1162/UN2.RST/HKP.05.00/2021.Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Ecological Monitoring and Protection and Utilization of Island Resources (2024ZD05). We sincerely thank them for their support.
