Journal of Classical Studies
Online ISSN : 2424-1520
Print ISSN : 0447-9114
ISSN-L : 0447-9114
The Critique of Philosophical Schools as Reflected in the Use of exempla maiorum in Cicero's De finibus bonorum et malorum
Tokiko Takahata
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2001 Volume 49 Pages 108-122

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Abstract

In De finibus, Cicero and other speakers, who represent various schools of philosophy, use many examples from Roman history to support their arguments However it is perhaps only Cicero who copiously employed actual historical examples to argue the idea of a purely theoretical highest good Further, Cicero stresses the common ground between the disciplines of philosophy and rhetoric, previously viewed as entirely separate The frequency and nature of these historical examples vary widely This aspect of De finibus has most often been overlooked by contemporary researchers, being regarded as a mere digression from the main discourse Exceptions to this trend are the studies on Book II by J Leonhardt and A Brinton While traditionally De finibus has been regarded as not only inconsistent (e g by H Uri), but also as lacking in originality (due to the fact that most of the political and philosophical ideas of Cicero are derived from philosophical schools), one can take his use of historical examples to be unique and worthy of study The different use of examples between the Books is also of interest In Book I Torquatus maintains that the philosophy of Epicurus would fit well with the Roman exempla maiorum and state ideal However, in direct contradiction to Torquatus in Book I, in Book II Cicero states with the help of many examples that the standard of behavior should be based on virtue rather than pleasure In Book III Cato has this view and Cicero agrees in principle Cato confirms this idea, insisting that Stoicism would best suit Rome However, contrary to Cicero's usual style, Cato does not support this view with historical examples, to prove the Stoic philosophy to be consistent with the Roman exempla maiorum The only examples he gives (3, 75) are of evil Romans, lost m vice and traitors to their state This imbalance in Book III can be regarded as an expression of criticism on Cicero's part namely, that the Stoa lacks the practical rhetoric necessary to realize its ideas within the sphere of Roman politics and society in general This criticism is in accord with the discussion between Cicero and Cato in Pro Murena Exempla maiorum are the most suitable rhetorical techniques for the philosophical arguments which deliberate between honesturn and utile They are also appropriate for the problem of summum bonum with which De finibus deals At the same time the characters used are clearly there to express Cicero's political ideology of pro patria Cicero uses examples in order to weave this ideology in a purely theoretical philosophical work In Cicero's use of historical examples appear labores glonosi, with which he attempts to unify the role of politician, philosopher and orator Cicero nowhere says that he himself or anyone else embodies this ideal Man cannot live only with virtue-as the Stoa insists-, owever, he can achieve certain progress towards this virtue This progressio ad virtutem expressed in the example of 4,65-7 would be exactly the summum bonum which the human being can aim at.

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