Estimated Daily Phytosterol Intake from Commonly Consumed Foods in Korea and a Global Comparison

Abstract

This study quantified phytosterol contents in cereals, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts/seeds, and plant oils commonly consumed in Korea and estimated daily phytosterol intake using nationally representative dietary data. Phytosterol concentrations varied substantially across food groups, with the highest levels observed in plant oils (rapeseed oil, 311.63 mg/100 g; sesame oil, 302.72 mg/100 g) and seeds (sesame seeds, 159.59 mg/100 g). The average daily intake among Koreans was 84.52 mg/d. Cereals contributed 35.84 mg/d, followed by vegetables (20.40 mg/d) and oils (12.60 mg/d). Major contributors included rice (15.90 mg/d), baechu kimchi (4.60 mg/d), tofu (3.17 mg/d), and soybean oil (6.23 mg/d). In international comparisons, Korea had the lowest intake among the countries examined (China, 392.30 mg/d; Spain, 275.40 mg/d; the Netherlands, 285.00 mg/d; Finland, 238.00 mg/d; Indonesia, 223.80 mg/d; Poland, 282.97 mg/d; and the United Kingdom, 163.00 mg/d). The relatively low intake appears to reflect dietary patterns characterized by high cereal consumption and limited use of plant oils. Given that habitual intake remains far below the 2 g/d level associated with cholesterol-lowering effects, these findings provide essential baseline data for evaluating phytosterol exposure in the Korean population and for developing culturally appropriate nutritional strategies.