The Effects of Shadow Education on Entrance into High School in Japan

Educational Attainment among Lower Socioeconomic Status Children

Abstract

　The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of shadow education (private formal tutoring) for children from low-socioeconomic status (SES) families on high school branches. Previous studies have focused on educational attainment only as a means of entrance into advanced high schools; moreover, treatment of unobserved heterogeneity has also been inadequate. In this article, we used propensity score analysis to examine the effects of shadow education in Japan for children on entrance into middle-level high schools. The results showed that cram school experience promoted the likelihood of entrance to both advanced and middle-ranked high schools but not for lower-ranked high schools. Tutors or correspondence courses promoted boys with lower-SES background to enter only advanced high schools. These results suggest that shadow education outside of school is partially effective for better educational attainment. However, these results also suggest that the level of academic achievement varies according to the type of shadow education.