Journal of the Asia Ethno-Forms Association

Featured article

Volume 21 (2025) Issue 01 Pages 3-14

Gaoli LIU

＜Abstract＞ This paper explores how the legally recognized gender category “Khawaja Sara” (KS) has been reconstructed and institutionalized in contemporary Pakistan through the intersections of religious symbolism, historical vocabulary, and legal frameworks. Drawing on long-term fieldwork conducted since 2011— including participant observation and interviews with KS individuals, religious figures, legal professionals, and NGOs—the author investigates how the term “Khawaja Sara,” which originally referred to eunuchs in the Mughal court, has been repurposed by the modern state as an official identity category. Particular attention is paid to the series of Supreme Court rulings between 2009 and 2012 that culminated in the formal adoption of the term within national ID systems. The paper argues that the naming of KS constitutes not merely a label, but a political translation shaped by colonial legacies, normative gender frameworks, and the state’s strategies of inclusion and control. The study ultimately reconsiders the dynamics of gender identity, embodiment, and the asymmetrical power inherent in the institutional act of naming.

Volume 21 (2025) Issue 01 Pages 15-24

Water Source Conservation and Reforestation Cooperation in Bali

Takashi Nameshida

＜Abstract＞ Indonesia, the 8th largest forest nation in the world, is facing a critical crisis of its forest environmental resources due to years of disorderly development, illegal logging, conversion to agricultural land, and frequent wildfires, making it urgent to establish a path towards sustainable forest management. This paper focuses on the village of Pedawa in Bali, where the residents’ selfgoverning organization activates are encouraging the potential motivation for forest management. It then reports on practical activities to promote reforestation in logged areas, protection of the water source forest where Hindu gods live, and forest fire prevention, and points out that these activities may open new prospects for forest administration in Indonesia. It also examines the process by which the combination of university education with social education programs can revive the local traditional culture of mountain ethnic minority-A ｇａ and prevent the ongoing destruction of the local forest ecosystem.

Volume 21 (2025) Issue 01 Pages 25-33

Discovery of Ancient Martial Arts Prevalent in the Mito Domain

Hideaki Aoyama

＜Abstract＞ As a representative inheritor of the newly discovered ancient martial arts schools that were prevalent in the Mito Domain during the Bunsei period, namely the Yiga-ryu and Asayama Ichiden-ryu, Fujisaki Tominojo Koremichi can draw on the ancient family documents. In addition, in a letter written by Takeishi Kensou, a former samurai of the Mito Domain, to his disciple Matsumoto Mitsugu in the 18th year of the Showa era, focusing on the comparison of the forms and contents of the transmission documents of the Muhi-ryu, Asayama Ichiden-ryu, and Kensou-ryu, and considering the characteristics of the martial arts inheritance, and at the same time incorporating supplementary information such as the oral history passed down by relatives and disciples, an attempt is made to verify the changes in martial arts that were prevalent among the samurai class from the late Edo period to the early Showa era, as well as the spirituality of martial artists.

Volume 21 (2025) Issue 01 Pages 34-44

The Echo of Compassion Entrusted to Ryokan’s “Fu” Pomes

Takako Matsuki

＜Research Note＞ This research note explores the “echo of compassion”　into the Zen monks of the late Edo period and Ryokan’s “Fu” poems, also consider the contemporary significance. Ryokan’s compassion was based on the spirit of the Lotus Sutra, which he believed in throughout his life, and it is notably through his unique “Hokke San” which condensed its teachings in classical Chinese. “Fu”poems, which is expressing advanced ideas in classical Chinese, was details compassion for nature and the idea of universal equality as seen in “Kankyo-fu”. His Chinese poem “Muyoku (No desire)” highlights his unattached life is the foundation of compassion. In waka poetry, he expressed his pure consciousness and acceptance of impermanence through “matsutsuki (children playing a ball)” or “katakuri (dogtooth violets flowers), “ and “Chirusakura (falling cherry blossoms). “ Ryokan’s poetry culminates his spiritual practice, rooted in “selfless consciousness and acceptance,” and guided by “universal compassion and fidelity to inner truth.” This signifies “the freedom of consciousness and intention,” urging liberation from worldly attachments toward inner happiness. The anecdote of “Tenjo Taifu (Great Wind from Heaven)” is the powerfully exemplifies this freedom, offering timeless healing and liberation from the sense of spiritual stagnation for modern societal constraints. Ryokan’s insights into modern societal constraints. Ryokan’s insights remain profoundly relevant today.

Volume 21 (2025) Issue 01 Pages 45-53

About the Iron Buddhist Head in Daimon-ward, Isumi City

Tomokazu Takahashi

＜Research Note＞ The Dainichidō Hall in Isumiyamada, Chiba Prefecture, houses an iron Buddhist head, the head of a bodhisattva-shaped statue. It is a large work with a total height of 113.0 cm, but it lacks a body, and the detailed background of its creation is almost unknown. Based on the structure of the Dainichido head, if the body part was intended to be produced, it seems likely that it was a seated statue, considering its size and weight, but there is no neckmortise part, and the method of joining them is questionable.Although the casting prototype is not known, the neat facial features suggest that a Buddhist priest was involved in the prototype production. It is believed that the Kazusa foundry was responsible for casting the head of the Buddha. The head of the Buddha was worshipped as a statue of Dainichi Nyorai in the late Edo period, but there is no proof that it was created as a statue of Dainichi Nyorai from the beginning. The face of the Buddha head is recognizable on Bodhisattva statues produced under the strong influence of art from the Song and Yuan dynasties of China. The hair on the head of the Dainichidō head of Buddha shares characteristics with the hair on bodhisattva statues imported to Japan from the Southern Song dynasty (960-1279). In this report, we have examined the author and the name of the head based on the style and structure of the Dainichido head, but we were unable to reach a clear conclusion. Research will be continued.

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2025 Volume 21 Issue 01

Institutions and Symbols of Identity Gaoli LIU
Water Source Conservation and Reforestation Cooperation in Bali Takashi Nameshida
Discovery of Ancient Martial Arts Prevalent in the Mito Domain Hideaki Aoyama
About the Iron Buddhist Head in Daimon-ward, Isumi City Tomokazu Takahashi

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