Shakespearean onnagata "female impersonators" disappeared from the London stage in the 1660s. Recently, some attempts have been made to revive them in modern Shakespeare productions, but many directors, actors and audiences have doubts about whether this is appropriate. Modern realism and psychological interpretation would suggest that it is unnatural and abnormal for a male actor to play a female role. Unless women perform female roles, they cannot be beautiful, charming and true to life. The recent revival of English female impersonators in Shakespeare's plays has generally been met with such prejudice and scepticism, although admittedly there have been some exceptions, such as Mark Rylance's Olivia in Twelfth Night performed at Middle Temple Hall and Shakespeare's Globe. He had been influenced by Kabuki onnagata, and gave a portrayal of Olivia that was superb in every respect. The modern prejudice against Shakespearean onnagata is mostly derived from the fact that they ignore reality and that early modern drama in the Shakespeare era was more dynamic and free from modern realism. The actors and the audiences shared a dramatic space of rich imagination created by powerful words. Shakespeare wrote plays for the actors in his company, including female impersonators. If they had been poor actors and plain in appearance, he could not have written roles such as Cleopatra or Lady Macbeth for them. It seems very difficult to revive the lost tradition of Shakespearean female impersonators on the modern British stage, in spite of the efforts of some actors. However, if serious attempts are made, it may be possible to rediscover other aspects of the female characters and the significance of texts that have been overlooked in interpretations based on modern realism or psychological analyses. Study of Kabuki's beautiful onnagata may be of great value for Shakespearean actors, allowing them to rediscover forgotten aspects of Shakespeare's original stage productions and texts.

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Robert Wild was an active poet in Restoration England. His poems in broadsheet form sold fairly well, and his name is mentioned by such important writers of the age as John Dryden and Samuel Pepys. Although his poems are mostly unknown today, Wild was one of the most popular satirists of the Restoration period. This study examines some of his poems in order to discover how Wild recorded the public experience of the Restoration, as well as his own inward experience as a nonconformist who was excluded from his living in 1662. "Iter boreale" is a substantial poem about General George Monck's march from Scotland to London which began in November 1659. Written in 1660, it depicts how the Restoration was brought about and how it was welcomed by people. Besides praise for Monck, the poem gives a remarkably detailed account of the historical background of the Restoration. "The Tragedy of Christopher Love" records the execution of a Presbyterian minister and is a memorial to Love as well as a criticism of the way the Presbyterians had been treated in the 1650's. After Wild was ejected from his living by the Act of Uniformity in 1662, he wrote poems more openly from a nonconformist's point of view. His credo was expressed in "The Loyal Nonconformist" where he admits that he is a royalist but he will not conform to the Church of England. Also, his denunciation of the Anglican churchmen is apparent in "The Poring Doctor". These poems are among those discussed in this study.

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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) doesn't use the word leviathan in The Elements of Law (1640) and De Cive (1642). He uses this word in Leviathan (1651) for the first time. In chap.28 of Leviathan he says that he took 'leviathan' out of 'the two last verses of the one and fortieth of Job'. And some of the Hobbes's commentators interpreted Hobbes's leviathan as an aquatic monster. Hobbes, however, says in "Introduction" of Leviathan that the leviathan is an artificial man. What on earth does Hobbes's leviathan mean? This paper examined linguistically how to use the word leviathan in Leviathan in order to seek the true meaning of Hobbes's leviathan. From the linguistic examination it follows that leviathan is the metaphor of the artificial man and the artificial man is the metaphor of the commonwealth. Therefore, both the leviathan and the artificial man are only the metaphor to make the readers understand Hobbes's commonwealth easily.

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The history of spirit photography began when the movement of Spiritualism saw a shift in its focus from raps to materialization, from sound to vision. There were some noted spirit phographers. The most famous and first successful is William Mumler of Boston. Frederick Hudson, Samuel and Mrs. Guppy are said to have been the pioneers in England. Eugene Buguet took more artistic spirit photographs than those predecessors, some of which summoned celebrities' ghosts. After some years of stagnation, William Hope and his Crewe Circle revived this type of photography, and, beside the spiritualists like Arthur Conan Doyle, experts in conjuring like Harry Price and Harry Houdini got involved in the disputes about their authenticity. It is true that spirit photography was an inevitable by-product of Spiritualism more and more spectacularized in the postbellum period. But, taking a look at the early history of photography, we find two other contexts which gave rise to it. First, there were some attempts to overcome the limitations of photography as a visual medium, and spirit photography was one as it tried to catch the invisible. Second, spirit photography was a new kind of portrait photography that could represent their subjects' individualities, when photographic typology was being established through the spread of commercial photography.

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Mass-Observation (M-O) was probably the largest investigation into popular culture to be carried out in Britain in the 20^<th> Century. It was established in 1937 by a small group of upper-middle-class intellectuals. The founder, Tom Harrisson, an anthropologist, was aware of the serious gap between what ordinary people, 'the mass', actually thought and what the press, the media and politicians said they thought : 'How little we know of our next door neighbour and his habits; how little we know of ourselves. Of conditions of life and thought in another class, our ignorance is complete. The anthropology of ourselves is still only a dream'. M-O had three main methods : firstly, inviting ordinary people to report on their everyday lives in diary form; secondly, recruiting observers whose role was to watch, listen and document all aspects of ordinary behaviour; and thirdly, involving poets, writers and artists to comment subjectively, in complement to the documentary bias of the observers. These latter believed that it was possible to study society in an entirely objective manner and that the widespread collection of data would 'contribute to an increase in the general social consciousness'. This paper will examine M-O's first and most ambitious study on holiday culture in the seaside resort of Blackpool. This was called the Worktown Project, which, in addition to documenting Blackpool, looked at everyday life in nearby Bolton in 1937-9. (Both towns were chosen as representative of the industrial North.) There is evidence that M-O's image of working-class people and their holiday escapism in Lancashire during the Depression reveals a unique, deeply textured image of being on holiday and something of what it meant. This would suggest much about the evolution of the commercial mass leisure industry and the significance of leisure to the labouring classes.

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This paper deals with the "love" or "affection" in the teaching manual in the 19th century. In short, the children "loved" the teacher. The teacher robbed the children of the feelings of "love" or "affection" and the teacher governed the classroom soundly. The historical technique at the classroom was the children's "love" toward the teacher. This paper examines the mechanism of the governmental act through the "love" or "affection" at the classroom in the David Perkins Page's teaching manual. Page was on friendly with Horace Mann, who is called the "Father of the Public School Education". This paper deals with the historical manual written by Page. This manual referred the governmental act of real prison. Page inspired and applied that act to the classroom teachers. Education or instruction has been realized the exploitation from the children's feeling of "love" in the context of school government.

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Passionlessness was an image of a woman which was produced in the nineteenth century. Whereas the image was utilized to protect men's double standard for women, it defined women as a more moral sex than men; therefore, the nonsexual image became an ideology to foster women's solidarity in the era. Nevertheless, in The Awakening, the passionlessness of the nineteenth-century female body was criticized by means of presentation of Edna's sensuous body. The mother-woman such as Adele and the desexualized woman such as Reisz were both rejected by Edna. After her awakening, Edna attempted to shift her female body from an object as the seen to the site of a subject as the seer-a visually empowered subject. In the nineteenth century, men's subjectivity was built on the eye that could see others in asymmetrical relations under the colonial and patriarchal situations. Thus, Edna tried to reconstruct her life-world by acquiring and following the colonial eye. Edna's behavior after her awakening showed the process of her appropriating the masculine eye. However, Edna's post-nineteenth-century female body with the colonial eye could not secure its own place as of the late nineteenth century.

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The purpose of this paper is to show that Margaret Atwood has created unique animal symbol in Surfacing (1972). First of all, it must be noted that she defines Canadian animal symbol in Survival (1972), comparing it with English and American ones. We see that the symbol signifies unity between the concept of 'victims' and Canadian psychological trait because Atwood insists that Canadian animal stories present animals as victims. Secondly, we consider the way animals are depicted in Surfacing on the basis of her conception. Then, we find that the protagonist's metamorphosis has a close relation to the original symbol that Atwood creates. We arrive at the conclusion that the metamorphosis into an animal brings about a "hope" of preserving Canadian identity.

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Although Bernard Malamud's "Idiots First" contains many symbols to suggest his warning for crises of Jewish tradition, few critics until now have commented on this aspect. This short story in fact has been interpreted only through the theme of the sanctity of human life by Mendel's love to his idiot son, Isaac. But another significant aspect of the image of idiots in Malamud's stories is that their queerness symbolizes Jewish tradition, religious belief, because the assimilated or Americanized Jews since their immigration to the United States, have regarded the Old World as a symbol of queerness in order for them to survive in the New World. This paper analyzes the effective use of the images of names of Mendel, Isaac, and the existence of idiots, showing how Bernard Malamud, as one of the Jewish American writers positively reflects the crises of Jewish identity in his stories.

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