Problem-based learning（PBL）employs self-directed learning（SDL）, which is considered to be similar to self-regulated learning. In this study, the effects of two kinds of instructional methods―PBL and lectures―on students’ self-regulated learning strategies and motivation were examined. Forty-eight Japanese undergraduate students of an educational psychology course participated in this study. Among the 15 classes, lectures were conducted in the first 7 classes and PBL was employed in the next 3 classes. In these three classes, the students were asked to study a case of two students with little motivation to learn. After this stage, the students were asked to answer a questionnaire to identify their self-regulated learning strategies and their level of motivation in the lectures and PBL. Self-regulated learning strategies consisted of “macro-understanding,” “micro-understanding,” “planning,” “studying with others,” “access to external resources,” and “rehearsal,” each of which was measured on a 4-point scale. Students’ motivation was measured using interest and utility values, again on a 4-point scale.

  Results showed that PBL led to effective self-regulated learning strategies such as macro-understanding, micro-understanding, planning, and access to external resources, while the scores for “rehearsal” were higher in lectures. Although the interest value for PBL did not significantly differ from that for the lectures, the utility value was significantly higher for PBL than it was for the lectures. Correlation between task value and the use of self-regulated learning strategies was calculated for both the lectures and PBL. In the lectures, only interest value correlated with micro-understanding. In PBL, correlation was significant between interest value and micro-understanding and between utility value and access to external resources.

  These results suggest that PBL helps students use self-regulated learning strategies more effectively than lectures. Furthermore, the relationship between task value and use of self-regulated learning strategies differs according to whether PBL or lectures have been used.

  The aim of this study was to investigate the development of cognitive specialization. 349 children from 1st to 6th grade participated in the study, which consisted of a cooperative memory task set up in such a way that a high score could be obtained by performing the task together as a pair and appointing each other responsibilities. The “School Exploration Game” sent children out in pairs to memorize things inside the school. Cooperation was imperative. The winner was the team that was able to remember the highest total of things, with each member of the pair remembering different things being the key to gaining a high score. The children were presented with a task questionnaire and asked what they thought they should do in order to win the game. Results showed that some children from as early as the 3rd grade demonstrated the ability to carry out cooperative strategy selection that took their partner’s strategies into consideration. Whereas, results showed that nearly all of the children in the 5th grade were capable of this type of cooperative strategy selection.