In contemporary Japan, there is an expectation for Buddhists to listen to the suffering of the patient and be involved in reducing their suffering in any way possible. I have completed the Japanese version of the Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE), worked as Buddhist chaplains in hospitals and elderly care facilities, and became a supervisor for several Japanese CPEs. Currently I am involved in the practical training program for “Rinsho-shukyo-shi,” which are Japanese-style “interfaith chaplains.” This program was established by the Graduate School of Practical Shin Buddhist Studies of Ryukoku University in 2014. This training has been gradually improved, with the specific goal of “integration of theory and clinical practice” added in 2018. As a result, the CPE methods of group work, which has a history of nearly 100 years, was strongly emphasized. This study discusses this practice as training Buddhists to support the suffering of the sick, with a particular focus on group work, which is the narrative of individual “living human documents.” Under my guidance, through sincere interactions among trainees who have made a promise of confidentiality to each other, trainees learn experientially about “self-knowledge” and “self-acceptance,” as well as the CPE methods of “support” and “clarification.” Through this group work, trainees cultivate a state of mind while facing the hospitalized and deepen and reconstruct their identity as Buddhists.

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The Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra contains several descriptions of diseases and their cures. This article classifies them into three types: “magico-religious” medicine, “empirico-rational” medicine, and the idea that plagues are brought about when kings rule lawlessly (adharma). For the first two, previous studies have already pointed out their correspondence with classical Ayurveda. As for the third, similar statements can be found in early Buddhist texts such as the Jātaka, and in the Charakasamhitā, a representative document of classical Ayurveda. However, a closer look at the descriptions in these texts reveals a context in which the king’s non-lawful acts do not directly bring about the plague, but the king’s non-lawfulness leads to the non-lawful state of the entire country, and the plague is the result of their “group karma,” so to speak. The same structure is described in the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. However, in the “Caturmahārāja-parivarta” there is no mention of this “group karma” and the king’s non-lawful acts, i. e., his failure to respect the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra and protect its devotees, is directly attributed to cause plague. It can be noted, therefore, that in the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra the idea of kingship is expanded, and that a new view of disease is presented, in which a single king can both bring and quell a plague on the people.

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The theme of this academic conference is “Buddhism and Disease.” In 2022, the author contracted COVID-19 twice. Vimalakīrti, the protagonist of Vimalakīrtinirdeśa (Vkn), also lies on the bed of illness, but to conclude first, of course, there is no cure or treatment described in this sūtra for the actual infection itself, such as COVID-19. Vimalakīrti’s becoming ill is his skillful means for the salvation of sentient beings and is triggered by great compassion. That is to say, the illness depicted in Vkn is an analogy for human afflictions, and it teaches the attitude and behavior of bodhisattvas —who also appear to be covered with afflictions as the means to save other beings, motivated by their great compassions— should be like. This paper will focus on chapter 4 (chapter 5 in the Chinese translation), which contains various descriptions of the illness, and examine some insights into and methods of dealing with the illness of afflictions advocated by this sūtra, from the perspectives of prajñā and the four immeasurable minds, which surround bodhicitta. It connects the often redundant and difficult-to-understand emptiness philosophy inherited from the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras with the daily lives of human beings who suffer and struggle in the real world.

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It is often difficult to provide a clear answer to the seemingly straightforward question: “What lives did the Buddhist monks/nuns lead in early India? ” The difficulty arises, in part, from the limited exploration of their activities and behaviors compared to the extensive study of their doctrines and teachings in Indian Buddhism research. Nonetheless, there are informative sources that can illuminate the activities and behaviors of Buddhist monks/nuns in early India. The Vinaya, the monastic law code, is undoubtedly a significant repository of such information. It comprises rules governing monastic life, addressing both individual religious practices and communal concerns, thereby offering valuable insights into Indian Buddhist monasticism. This paper aims to illuminate a specific aspect of Indian Buddhist activities and behaviors based on vinaya texts, focusing on the topic of the sick. The selection of this topic aligns with the theme of the conference journal, “Buddhism and Sickness,” and is motivated by the fact that there are numerous rules regarding the sick in vinaya texts. The primary source for this paper is the Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya. The choice of this text is justified by its voluminous nature, making it a vast repository of information. Additionally, the availability of this vinaya text in Sanskrit, Tibetan translation, and Chinese translation allows for a comprehensive examination from multiple linguistic perspectives. The Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya presents many rules pertaining to the sick, covering various aspects, making a comprehensive discussion of these rules challenging. However, some of them can be classified at least into two patterns for analysis: regulations concerning medical treatments and exceptions or temporary waivers of vinaya rules for the sake of the sick. These two patterns are, however, relatively well studied. In this paper, therefore, I provide lesser-known but unique rules falling within these two patterns, such as those related to laxatives, alcohol, and the sale of clothes. Then, as examples of the rules that deviate from these two patterns, I specifically address those regarding the properties of sick monks approaching death or already deceased. Finally, I analyze Buddhist perspectives on the sick through these rules.

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This short paper examines cures for diseases prescribed in Tantric Buddhis literature, mainly based upon the Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha (hereafter STTS), the principal scripture of Yogatantras, and its related texts. The features of the cures prescribed in the text examined are as follows: (1) the techniques of the possession (āveśa in Sanskrit) are applied to the cures; (2) rays of light (or shining deities) are involved in the techniques of possession which are applied to the cures; and (3) the rituals of gazing (dṛṣṭi in Sanskrit), which are closely related to rays of light emitted from the eyes of the practitioner, are also applied to the cure. Possession occupies the core of the various ritual practices prescribed in the STTS. The important role of possession is also seen in the cures for diseases in the STTS and the related literature.

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In this paper, I discuss the instances in which the Lotus Sutra is likened to “good medicine.” First, the Lotus Sutra states in Chapters 3 and 28 that those who slander the Lotus Sutra will become ill. Also, from Chapters 16 and 23, we can read the metaphor of the Lotus Sutra as a good medicine. Regarding this metaphor, Nichiren (1222-1282) independently interpreted it in his work “Tokidono-Gohenji” as follows: the recent epidemic of plague was caused by the people’s slander of the Lotus Sutra, and this plague can only be cured by the teachings based on the latter half of the Lotus Sutra spread by Bodhisattva from the earth. Furthermore, in “Nakatsukasa-saemonnojodono-Gohenji, ” Nichiren draws on the Nirvana Sutra to rationally interpret the illnesses brought on by the sin of slander as psychogenic diseases. He also praises Shijo-Kingo, who cured him of his stomachache, as the Bodhisattva from the earth who delivers good medicine. In this way, by continually linking real life with the unrealistic religious world, the real suffering is positively sublimated, which may be the medicinal value of the Lotus Sutra as a good medicine.

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Hōnen preached that people should imagine the transience and impermanence of life from the actual feeling of such as being sickness, and urged people to face the problem of life and death. This view of life and death was derived from ‘Onri-edo’ （厭離穢土） in “Ōjōyōshū” （往生要集）, it can also be seen in “Kanjinryakuyōshū”(観心略要集) and Eikan’s works. However, in “Kanjinryakuyoshū” and Eikan’s works, there is also a view of life and death that considers Reincarnation and Nirvana to be the same. In the eleventh chapter of “Senchakushū” (選択集), Hōnen wrote ‘the sickness which arises from the root cause of ignorance cannot be cured without the all-powerful medicine of the Middle Way,’ but he did not mention the monistic view of life and death. Hōnen referred to the ‘present benefits’ of Nenbutsu, but it seems that he placed importance on being satisfied with having lived a limited life to the fullest, not on the ability to prolong life. He rather denied praying for worldly benefits.

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Focusing on Daoxuan’s Sifenlü-Xingshichao, this study examines the key elements of nursing care practice in the Nanshan Lūzong. The Vinayapiṭaka contains many regulations concerning illness, but in the SifenlüXingshichao Daoxuan summarizes the examples of nursing care described in the Tripiṭaka and teaches that the foundation of nursing care in Buddhism is compassion. Later commentators on Daoxuan’s views have further emphasized the significance of nursing care, indicating that the practice of nursing based on compassion leads to the fulfillment of the Way of the Buddha. Daoxuan also emphasized the importance of creating an environment in which those who are seriously ill may devote themselves to the attainment of Pure Land rebirth, break free from the fear of death and stabilize their minds. The method of nursing patients using Pure Land rebirth oriented practice is not found in the Vinaya-piṭaka, and may be attributed to the Nanshan Lüzong itself. We may conclude that Yuanzhao’s teachings in the unified Vinaya and Pure Land thought tradition were an important influence on the theory and practice of nursing care in the Nanshan Lūzong.

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Shinran, in his own pursuit of the Buddhist path, holds a particular perspective on illness. This paper aims to examine how Shinran, as a disciple of the Buddha, confronts his own illness and engages with the illnesses of his contemporaries. With this question in mind, this paper first confirms Shinran’s fundamental perspective on illness through a consideration of scriptures that he held to be important such as the Larger Sutra of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life, as well as his own primary work, the Kyōgyōshinshō. Next, the paper focuses on Shinran’s references to concepts like “demons” (kuei 鬼) and “sickness,” particularly in the latter fascicle of the sixth chapter of the Kyōgyōshinshō which is entitled “Keshindonomaki,” to explore his discourse on “demons” and “maras,” which were thought be the cause of disease and death. Thirdly, the paper addresses the attitude that Shinran took as a disciple of the Buddha towards illness based on his personal experiences and his interactions with fellow practitioners who faced illness. One key point that becomes clear from these considerations is that Shinran takes the position that for human beings, who are living with bodies that will necessarily fall ill, there is a major problem which arises from the suffering of illness that goes beyond the simple question of whether the specific disease can be cured or not. Consequently, it is possible to conclude that the perspective on illness in Shinran’s teachings, as reflected in his words and way of life, is based on his more fundamental concern with “studying the Buddha’s path,” which is focused on walking a path that will lead oneself and others out of the suffering of birth, aging, sickness, and death.

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According to the Yogācāravādin theory, a reality consists of appearance of image and a vicissitude. Their theory persuades that living in a realty is just a fiction, or nothing but an imagination. However, it is curious that how they face being sick. Do their thoughts remain that sickness is also a part of event in virtual world, and are there any cure to heal it? This script will pursue the answer for thought of Yogācāravādin on sickness, but since there are few resources as this subject has never been examined, a few breakdowns will take in place to discuss and writer’s opinion will be added to nurture the contents. First, let it be clear that being sick in real life consider less important for the study of Yogācāra system, which is the part of base of Yogācāravādin focus more on virtual intellect, not reality. Abhidarma on sickness reference will be used as part of this research, then comparison of these will take place to analyze and prove how sickness will affect on Yogācāravādinism. In detail of this research, Chinese-translated document will be the subject of this investigation and Sanskrit and documents were also used to support this issue. As the result, there were not many cases to explain or prove how Yogācāravādin deal with sickness in real life. This investigation shows Yogācāravādin is not motivated to confront this sickness issue.

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The Shaku-Makaen-Ron, which is estimated to have been established by the middle of the eighth century, proposes a combination of kikon (the potential ability to learn Buddhism) and kyōhō (teachings and doctrines) as elements that constitute causation for the arising of “Buddha, enlightenment, and truth.” At certain points, kikon is described as a sickness and kyōhō as a good medicine. In other words, the relationship between kikon and kyōhō is expressed as the relationship between a sickness and its medicine. It is to emphasize the truth character of the supreme concept of truth, that is, the truth of Huni-makaen-hō. In this case, sickness and its medicine are used to mean “existing conventional teachings,” “relics of the past,” etc.. Why does Shaku-Makaen-Ron make this judgment? I believe that Shaku-Makaen Ron compared the earlier, inferior (in his opinion) concept of truth to the limited human activity of sickness and its medicine in order to emphasize the character of the nondual Mahā Enlightenment as an unconstrained truth of a different dimension. And not only in the Shaku-Makaen-Ron, but also in some Tang Buddhist circles of the same period, a similar tendency can be found.

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A study of the Shingon sect’s prayers for the end of epidemics, based on the Anjoji-ryu （安祥寺流）. I covered the “yakushiho （薬師法）” and “Matarijinho （摩怛利神法）” methods. In particular, I examined the process by which the “Matarijinho （摩怛利神法）” was established using newly obtained materials.

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I collected and analyzed examples of diseases in Nihon tōjō rentō roku (日本洞上聯燈録). The purpose of this is to clarify the author’s understanding of the disease as expressed in the book.When I analyzed the examples I collected, I was able to categorize their trends into the following six types: 1. Examples of stating the presence or absence of disease in the process leading to death 2. Examples of using diseases as a metaphor for misunderstanding 3. Examples of using diseases as a reason to decline an invitation from a powerful person 4. Examples of using diseases as a pretext for resigning as a temple chief priest 5. Examples of ending influence etc. through moral virtue 6. Other examples In this paper, I will describe the presentation I made regarding the analysis of the above examples.

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This paper examines how early modern Soto sect monks dealt with illness. Although there is an impression that early modern Japanese monks were subject to control from the Edo Shogunate and their free activities were restricted, in reality monks were exploring various efforts to fulfill their duties. Ta. Among them, there were cases where people faced the various diseases that plagued people and made efforts to solve them. There are also recorded cases where monks “nursed” patients, and we examined what motives and doctrines supported this. At that time, I particularly confirmed how to understand the Brahma Sutra. He also introduced a case in which, as the chief priest of a temple, he dealt with the illnesses of priests and disciples and gave them advice in Dharma language. The purpose of this paper is to gain a diverse understanding of the activities and thoughts of early modern Soto sect monks through an examination of the above content.

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This paper considers some aspects of the role Buddhist paraphernalia (altars, graves, Buddhist statues, Jizo statues, etc.) or Buddhist facilities (temples, the Shikoku Pilgrimage, etc.) play for persons suffering from painful illnesses, or their families. This analysis is based on the testimonies and the state of those people. Three types of sources were used: documents written by the persons suffering (survey of records of fighting illness), discussions with them (interviews), and some modest fieldwork by the author (site surveys of Jizo statues worshipped for their healing powers). The results showed that Buddhist resources such as Buddhist paraphernalia and Buddhist facilities were helping to soothe the pain of illness, as they were seen as sites where protection of Buddha or blessings for deceased loved ones (or ancestors) could be prayed for, and where people could talk freely about their complex, day-to-day feelings.

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