Various approaches such as neurophysiology, neuro-anatomy, psychophysics, molecular biology, and neuro-imaging have been employed to evaluate visual functions in the brain. One of the neu ro-imaging techniques useful for evaluating brain activities is functional magnetic resonance im aging（fMRI）, based on blood oxygen level-dependent contrast, which originates from changes in cerebral blood flow and volume and its oxygenation. The fMRI is a strong, non-invasive technique that enables us to use human participants. However, it measures indirect hemodynamic respons es and not direct neural responses. Additionally, it has limited temporal and spatial resolutions. Various analyses have been designed to infer neuronal activities from fMRI, including univariate analysis, adaptation methods, and multi-variate pattern analysis（or multi-voxel pattern analy sis）. In this session, based on the speakerʼs experience, an outline of conventional fMRI and a newly devised analyses, using the selectivity of the single voxel, are presented.

　Single-unit recordings provide a method for investigating electrophysiological properties of individual neurons in the central nervous system. These techniques can analyze neuronal activities of awake animals with a high spatio-temporal resolution, and are widely used in the field of cognitive neuroscience. In this paper, I will provide a brief overview of single-unit recording techniques and introduce my recent findings with regard to social action monitoring in the macaque mid-superior temporal sulcus region.

　Magnetoencephalography（MEG）enables non-invasive measurements of magnetic signals that originate from neuronal electrical activities. These measurements can help to assess brain activities, the visual cortex, and ocular muscles. An optically pumped magnetometer（OPM）, which does not require a cryogenic cooling apparatus, has been developed as an alternative to su perconducting quantum interference device（SQUID）systems. A diamond nitrogen-vacancy（NV）magnetometer based on quantum magnetic sensing potentially offers superior spatial resolutions and integrations, where the device placement is more flexible and closer to the scalp for revealing brain activities. In this study, we observed and compared an MEG signal of a human steady-state visually evoked field using both SQUID and OPM systems under the application of variable stimulation patterns. We evaluated the optimal stimulation conditions, brain magnetic-field mapping, and the systemʼs dependence on the standoff distance between the sensor and the source of the magnetic field. This evaluation reveals the potential sensing capabilities of diamond NV for detecting bio-magnetic fields.

　Optogenetics is a powerful technique that allows the precise manipulation of the activity of specific neuron types or specific neuronal pathways with high temporal resolution. The application of optogenetics in nonhuman primates, evolutionarily and behaviorally close to humans, is expected to lead to substantial advances in basic and applied research. Although transgenic and knock-in lines of nonhuman primates are not readily available, recent technological developments in optogenetics have made many approaches available for studies on primates, including pathway-selective optical stimulation and combination with neural activity imaging. Further progress in primate optogenetics will accelerate our elucidation of primate neural network functions and encourage the clinical applications of optogenetics.

　This study described a case of congenital quadrantanopia associated with unilateral periven tricular leukomalacia（PVL）in a patient, being managed for glaucoma．A 47-year-old male was found to have left congruous lower quadrantic visual field defects and thinning of a segment of the ganglion cell complex（GCC）by optical coherence tomography during a routine eye exam ination for glaucoma. The funduscopic examinations was unremarkable. Magnetic resonance im aging of the brain showed endangerment of the right lateral ventricular trigone. Moreover, T2-weighted imaging and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery pulse sequence showed a high-sig nal intensity in the immediate periventricular white matter, partially involving the right optic radiation, suggesting brain damage such as PVL. There have been no reports on the thinning of GCC due to PVL; however, the trans-synaptic retrograde degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells was a possible cause.

　We report a case of an 80-year-old woman with extraocular muscle paralysis associated with herpes zoster prolonged for more than one and a half years. She had skin symptoms 10 days pri or, was diagnosed with herpes zoster by a local dermatologist, and then referred to our hospital. At the first visit, she had strong left eyelid swelling, blisters, and erythema in the first branch（V1）region of the trigeminal nerve from the left forehead to the upper eyelid, no inflammation in the anterior segment of the eye or retinal vitreous; however, left ocular abduction failure and esotropia were present. She had no strong complaints of diplopia and had no obvious intracranial lesions, extraocular muscle thickening, or inflammatory findings. Her eye position gradually im proved; however, her left abduction deficiency persisted one and a half years after the onset. Cas es of herpes zoster in the V1 region complicated with extraocular muscle paralysis have been pre viously reported from various countries; however, many cases showed improvement within 6 months. In the herpes zoster cases in the V1 region, cautious observation is required not only for corneal and intraocular inflammation findings but also for eye position and movements since it may be accompanied by eye muscle palsy.

　A 57-year-old male was referred to our ophthalmology department because of subacute vision loss 3 weeks after a full-thickness skin graft for malignant melanoma of the left heel. The cor rected visual acuities for the right and left eyes were 0.04 and 0.07, respectively, and central sco tomas were observed in both eyes. Pupillary light reflexes were prompt and the relative afferent pupillary defect was negative. Fundus photography showed only an optic nerve fiber layer defect in the inferior part of the left eye, but no redness, swelling, or retinal telangiectasia. Four weeks after the first visit, optical coherence tomography showed that ganglion cell complex thickness of macula had become thin. Additionally, the central visual field defect, as detected by Goldmann perimetry, had worsened. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed a point mutation at position 11778, which led to the diagnosis of Leberʼs hereditary optic neuropathy（LHON）. The diagnosis, in this case, was difficult because of no family history of ophthalmic disease, the elderly age compared to the usual onset age of LHON, and no characteristic findings of optic nerve papillae. The possibility of late-onset LHON should be considered when acute paracentral dark spot progression is seen, even in the absence of typical findings.

　Congenital proptosis is uncommon in newborns. Here we report the case of a neonate born after prolonged and difficult delivery who presented with unilateral left eye proptosis at birth due to an intraorbital hematoma that gradually progressed over the course of several days, eventually requiring surgical intervention. The neonate also developed an incidental contralateral extradural hemorrhage that gradually resolved.

　Rhino-orbital cerebral mucormycosis（ROCM）is a rare infection that can progress into cavernous sinus thrombosis（CST）, a life-threatening ocular emergency with significant systemic consequences. Herein, we present the case of a 57-year-old female diabetes patient came to the emergency room with bilateral blurred vision. Two weeks prior, she had experienced a right upper maxillary gingival abscess, fever, general weakness, and headache. The patient was somnolent and exhibited a Harlequin-face, with no light perception bilaterally. Ptosis, proptosis, conjunctival chemosis, and corneal ulcers were prominent in the right eye, while the left eye showed a cherry-red spot fundus appearance. Contrast-enhanced brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed sinusitis, a right CST, and a dilated superior ophthalmic vein. Sinus biopsy cultures revealed Rhizopus sp.. Dental/sinus infections due to mucormycosis can potentially progress to ROCM, especially in diabetic patients with ketosis or ketoacidosis, who have a significant risk of morbidity and mortality from a rapidly deteriorating process.