Agroforestry has drawn attention as a promising way to tackle deforestation, particularly in tropical regions. Shade coffee agroforestry in Central America is one such example that has been spotlighted as an ecological and socioeconomic boon for farmers. In this study we focus on the distribution of shade trees and the dynamics of coffee plantations, and explain how is incorporated into people's changing livelihoods. Interviews with households and visits to coffee fields revealed 119 different shade tree species in various combinations on 159 coffee fields held by 66 households. The diversification of tree species was a reflection of various demands for shade trees according to the preferences of individual householders based on their lifestyle, culture, and knowledge. Diversity and variability in land use was also observed. Especially plantations had flexible dynamics incorporating slash-and-burn farming. These diversities should help people in responding flexibly to changes in external political or economic factors. Maintaining a wide range of options through diversity or other means is an excellent way to ensure a robust and flexible response to external pressures.

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The State Forestry Corporation, hereinafter called Perhutani, has been implementing a program called the Management of Forest Resources with the Community or Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Hutan Bersama Masyarakat (hereinafter called PHBM) since 2001 in an attempt to protect and conserve the existing forest while alleviating poverty. Our research was aimed at examining land cover changes during pre-implementation (1997-1999) and after implementation of the PHBM (1999- 2009). Further analysis was conducted to compare forest cover changes in PHBM and non-PHBM villages during 1999-2009. The results show that forest cover decreased during 1997-1999. However, during 1999-2009, reforestation increased markedly across the entire study area, in both PHBM and non-PHBM villages, although PHBM villages had higher increases in reforestation. Even under population pressure, reforestation was successful in PHBM villages because the people were aware of the current and future benefits of the PHBM, and people realized that the government was acknowledging the property rights of local peoples. The PHBM also provides a secure feeling since the government and the Perhutani program assured the people that the program would be fully implemented.

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In this paper, I have focused on Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman of family Musaceae, and discussed the knowledge and practices adopted by the local people of northern Myanmar and northwestern Laos with respect to the use of this plant. Recent field observations indicate that E. glaucum is used for many purposes, including food, medicine, material, feed, and ornament. People participate in its growth in different ways, such as collecting it in forests, conserving it in human habitation, and deliberately cultivating it in homegardens. This case study suggests a particular type of people-plant interaction that extends beyond the functional boundary of a forest and describes a flexible method of forest resource management.

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