Within the scant amount of research that has been done to date on the army in Restoration England, garrisons have been commonly presumed to have been inactive, reserve forces with little military value, due to their absence from the battle front, which has been the main, and perhaps the only, research focus of concern in conventional military history. The aim of this paper is to challenge this assumption by illuminating the yet unexplored military functions of the garrisons and shed light on some important aspects of civil-military relations during the period, especially the strong connections forged between provincial communities and locally stationed troops. Concerning their military roles, first, garrisons acted as main bases for soldier/officer recruitment, enabling the government to realize the rapid expansion of regular forces (both army and navy) in time of war. The smooth execution of this function was crucialy dependent on the personal networks created by garrison commanders and their diligent acceptance of heavy administrative and financial burdens. Secondly, the garrisons were engaged in local defense in collaboration with provincial communities. Garrison commanders, in many cases, kept close contact with local governing elites, secured their support, and thereby were able to successfully mobilize various local resources in the form of money, materials and manpower, to pursue their activities. Although hardly involved in actual battle, the garrisons provided no less important military service. Behind the collaboration between the garrisons and provincial communities lay the local connections built by garrison commanders. Out of the 116 garrison governors commissioned during this period, sixty per cent were linked to their respective stations through at least one of the following four types of connection: (1) birth, estate or marriage, (2) their (or a close relative's) appointment to the same garrison in the past, (3) holding administrative/judicial office in the town corporation or county where they were stationed and (4) election as MP for a nearby borough constituency. These connections encouraged provincial communities and stationed troops to come into close contact, through which they could create and maintain reciprocal partnerships. It was in this way that civil-military relations in Restoration England essentially depended on the personal/local-based links and negotiation efforts between the two sides.

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The Scottish Geographical Magazine is an internationally circulating journal published three tirnes a year. The annual subscription is £27.00 and those intending to submit items for publication in English should send these to the Editor, Dr A S Mather, Department of Geography, University of Aberdeen, St Mary's, Old Aberdeen AB9 2UF, Scotland U. K.

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This article argues on the characteristics and meanings of "contextual teaching & learning (CTL)" as an instructional method in US career education, focusing on practices in academic subjects at the secondary education level. CTL is proposed as an alternative instructional method to deal with problems of schooling. It suggests the importance of "connecting" among contexts and each learner's meaningfulness in learning at school. This is done through the relating of contents of learning to the real world and helping learners to apply what they learned, based on the learners' interests to motivate them to learn, especially in academic subjects. In the United States, CTL is considered as one of the key elements of career education. CTL in career education considers the "context" of CTL as occupations. It intends for all students, including students taking vocational courses, to achieve high academic standards, including applied competencies such as problem solving, and to become interested in occupational careers and gain the knowledge and skills of occupational tasks. The backdrop of this is problems of "transition from school to work." Practices of CTL in career education are shaped into classes introducing the context of careers in a subject, interdisciplinary learning on careers, and project-based learning on careers. Summarizing the above, the author discusses three characteristics of CTL in career education as an instructional method in academic subjects: 1) to motivate students to learn, occupational careers as a social context are used in teaching (namely, connecting personal context with social context through socially-constructed meanings of learning); 2) "learning by doing" in the process of teaching and learning is emphasized (namely, connecting contents of academic subjects with learner's experience); 3) applied competencies such as problem solving that can help to transfer what they learned to (future) workplaces as well as abstract knowledge is stressed as the goal of teaching and learning (connecting learning in the present with future situations.) Conventional methods of teaching abstract knowledge in academic subjects is decontextualized; most students don't feel this knowledge is related to their life. However, many people, such as the authors of the SCANS report, point out that knowledge in academic subjects is needed for students' lives, especially in their occupational careers. Thus, teaching in academic subjects needs contexts that deepen students' learning. In short, CTL in career education is the means of instruction and learning to explore relationships (namely "connecting") through occupations. In other words, it is oriented toward workplaces and working people, and the knowledge which learners should learn is embedded in them. CTL in US career education implies the following to the development of career education in Japan. First, CTL proposes valuable measures for underachieving students as an instructional method. Second, in contrast to the "New Value of Learning Ability" of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, which is oriented to value learning itself, CTL proposes an alternative paradigm of education which considers it important to learn in accordance with the learner's interests and career goals through social relationships. In the future, the authors will study the role of CTL in transition of learners to future social contexts (situations) and the meanings of CTL in technical (vocational) education.

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