In Japan, large cities like Kyoto and Osaka are governed by directly-elected monopodial mayors (chief executives), with only one elected representative responsible for major decision-making, including collaborative urban governance in partnership with residents and many other stake-holders. In France, for instance, quasi-cabinet-type groups of elected councillors practically carry out executive functions of large cities. A similar collegial system, in fact, was adopted by Japan in the Meiji-era, but abandoned after World War II and simply forgotten until now. The author discusses merits and demerits of current and past systems of urban governance by comparing them with European practices, then proposes that large Japanese cities return back to collegial governance so that multiple elected representatives are responsible for the administration of public affairs and are able to develop potential abilities for better urban and national governance.

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This paper considers the intergovernmental relationships on telecommunications policy in the U.S. and EU with a case of universal service system. I would like to examine the federal preemption of state universal service regulations comparing with the EU member states and European Commission. In conclusions, the federal preemption of state universal service regulations is quite limited so that if the European Comission will establish the European "FCC" replaced by the ERG, they may need to admit National Regulatory Agencies more flexibility in policy-making.

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The serious damaged area by The East Japan Devastating Earthquake has been covered by "anxiety" for high professional decisions including nuclear power plants and also public educational management. Such decisions belong to "publicness" and are seen by the eye of incredulity. Tatsuo Inoue, political philosopher, suggests that we should ask for the reason, not domain, actor and procedure, of "publicness". Our society have been discussing on autonomous school management as "publicness". Now public schools are strongly asked to conduct at perfection in any emergency after 3.11.. It makes teachers and school staff "anxiety". As searching for autonomous school management, we should try to remove " anxiety" inside and outside schools. How did public schools act from 14:46 (during school hours) on 3.11 until the beginning of a new school year - I investigated four schools of the different context and damage. From the hearing about them, we can understand that each teacher independently judged and acted to rescue children and also refugees since their schools had became the municipality appointed shelter. Some local residents supported such teachers , although the municipal staff were to manage the shelter. It is crucial to recognize that such public schools' capability apparently served at the time of a disaster resembles the capability to perform autonomous curricula management while it includes sharing the purpose and the contents of learning with local residents. Also some guidelines over a disaster were revised. However they are not enough to take away the "anxiety" around schools. We ourselves should own how to survive from a disaster and administration should draw the direction. High professional decisions would not be perfect to assumption of a disaster. The autonomous citizen is needed. In such a social project, the importance of the autonomous curricula management with local community would be grown as action of asking the public reason.

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本稿は、現在設置されている法人公民館のひとつである岐阜県多治見市の財団法人池田町屋公民館を事例として、法人公民館の設立・運営の実態を歴史的に明らかにすることを目的とする。池田町屋公民館の設立にあたっては、1947年の政令第15号によりこれまでの区(部落会)では保有できなくなった山林等の区有財産の処理をめぐって、いわば区有財産保持・管理の「隠れみの」として法人立の公民館が設立された経緯が明らかとなった。また、戦後初期における財団法人池田町屋公民館においては、生産復興・産業指導・医療・福祉・保健・生活改善等、郷土社会の復興や人びとの生活福祉に関する活動が多彩に繰り広げられた実態が明らかとなった。

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Wide-area municipalities, such as states, can select integration and separation to/from nations based onover all profit and loss. Federalism is a national system that secures equality of political rights of states withrespects to national integration. The election system, such as the single-seat constituency system or thelarge constituency system as well as the proportional representation system should be chosen according toroles of parliaments. In bicameral systems, although Lower Houses, which emphasize on populationproportional seats distribution have predominance, Upper Houses should ensure political representationright of states or provinces.

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　Laws and systems regarding the protection of personal information in Japan are currently undergoing major changes. The system for personal information protection in Japan has been decentralized, because that the idea of local autonomy was emphasized, and some local governments enacted personal information protection ordinances that were more advanced than the law of national government. Such decentralization was maintained even when the Personal Information Protection Law was enacted in 2003. The national government has been involved in the protection of personal information of local governments to a certain extent only.

　However, in the areas of handling personal information when a large-scale disaster occurs and handling personal information related to medical care, the decentralized system has become more troublesome. For this reason, the system for personal information protection has come to be unified in recent years. In this paper, we examine this transformation process of from decentralized system to unification lead by national government.

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　本稿では，近年における地方交付税の算定方法の見直しを振り返り，それをめぐる議論と帰結の意義を検討する．1998年に閣議決定された「地方分権推進計画」による算定方法の簡明化の要請を受け，補正係数の単位費用化や算定項目の統合化等の見直しを行った．また，1998年度からの３年間で段階的に実施された小規模団体に対する段階補正の縮小が，小泉政権による構造改革の中で更に拡大された．また小泉政権下で更なる算定方法の簡素化を進める目的から，2007年度には包括算定経費（新型交付税）が導入され，一部の経費区分を統合した上で，人口と面積を基本に財政需要の算定を行い，その中で捕捉されないものを地域振興費として測定する方法を採用した．その他，多くの批判の中にあった事業費補正の大幅な見直しが，2002年度と2010年度に小泉政権及び民主党政権における投資的経費の抑制方針に沿って行われ，投資的経費に係る基準財政需要額の算定方法を静態的なものに振り替えた．そして，2016年度に単位費用に業務改革の実態を反映させるトップランナー方式が導入され，それに伴い小規模団体において改革が困難な業務に関しては，段階補正で単位費用を割り戻す弾力的な措置をとった．これらの見直しの意義は，的確に捕捉した財政需要を公平な基準で配分するとした本来の地方交付税の算定のあり方に沿った，地方財政のあり方の変化や業務実態に応じた技術的対応に見出せる．

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Mark Twain is said to have written Pudd’nhead Wilson (1892) in a pessimistic mood when his financial situation was rapidly deteriorating. This article essays to examine the novel and its background in search of the cause of his pessimism.

The book is composed of two similar stories, “Pudd’nhead Wilson” and “Those Extraordinary Twins,” with the same characters in the same place during the same time period, both of which, however, deal differently with elections. In the latter, Siamese twins run for municipal positions from different parties, only one of them to be elected as an alderman of the city. Meanwhile, in the former story, elections are described in a less complicated way: the twins, physically separated, stand as candidates from the same party, both of them to be defeated. It is noticeable that “Pudd’nhead Wilson” specifies the years of its story: it begins in 1830, a few foreshadowing incidents happen in 1845, and in 1853 appear the main episodes including the municipal elections. This article examines the mid-19th century situation of Missouri State, especially the author’s home town Hannibal, in order to trace his pessimism back to his early life.

Eighteen fifty-three was when the Kansas-Nebraska Act was proposed and fiercely disputed, and the next year the act was approved. The act allowed the two territories to become federal states of slavery but also prepared for the transcontinental railroad expected to be constructed in both or either of the two states which adjoin Missouri State. Railroad construction was a driving force of economic growth on the frontier, which brought forth urban areas including Hannibal, and a booming economy including land speculations all over the state. The story uses the specific year to make readers imagine that behind the sleepy town in fiction, real societies were undergoing economic advancement, leading to the urbanization of Missouri State.

In “Pudd’nhead Wilson,” the grandees of the old community are plunged into tragedy by an urban character, Tom Driscoll, who is reared by a land speculator and, while studying in the East, learns city fashion and gambling, and, after frequenting the big city of St. Louis for gambling, ends up killing his foster father for money. The tragedy represents urbanization in mid-19th century Missouri society.

The author’s father, John Marshall Clemens, who immigrated from the south and ended up planted in Hannibal, had repeated financial collapses due to land speculations, which the very young Twain witnessed. Apart from his financial troubles, John Marshall was a prominent citizen engaging in urban reform activities in the town. It is possible, however, to suppose from reading the novel that experiences in his very young days lead the author to think his own financial trouble originated in his father’s inclination toward speculation, for which, in the story, he seems to blame the age of economic boom and urbanization.

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Berry discussed the hierarchy of central places (1958) and the ribbon developments (1959a, b) in Snohomish County, in which Lynnwood and Alderwood Manor were ranked as central places of village class, and arterial strips characterized Lynnwood. Morrill (1987) analyzed the suburbanization of retail trade (1954–82) in the Seattle metropolitan area. Lynnwood had grown up to be one of the major suburban retail cores in the Seattle metropolitan area until the 1980s. This paper aims to clarify how some retail / business districts have been developed in Lynnwood.

When Lynnwood was incorporated in 1959, in addition to Lynnwood Center, the earliest shopping center in Snohomish County, the secondary shopping centers were developed along Highway 99 about 2 miles west of Alderwood Manor. Lynnwood City merged with Alderwood Manor, and the town center changed into a planned shopping center in 1963. While Interstate 5 (I-5) was constructed as a freeway during the 1960s, some planned centers and unplanned urban arterial businesses grew to be the city center of Lynnwood around the crossroads of two urban arterial roads connecting with the freeway interchanges.

The impacts of Interstate 5 and Highway 99 are independent of each other. Alderwood Mall, a super-regional center, was developed in the vicinity of the junction of I-5 and another freeway (I-405) in 1979. Several planned smaller centers were developed around Alderwood Mall during the 1980s. A few smaller centers were developed along the arterial road to Everett Mall, a regional center about 5 miles north of Alderwood Mall along I-5. There is a strong dependence of the large planned centers on good access to the freeway, as Morrill (1987) pointed out.

Several regional and super-regional malls were located in the suburban area, and the suburbanization of retail trade reached to maturity by the 1970s, as Kellerman (1985) pointed out. It seems that suburban centers began to compete with each other for market space in the 1980s. This paper discusses the reformation of retail space in the Seattle metropolitan area, especially southwestern Snohomish County around Lynnwood, since the 1980s.

Snohomish County has experienced a higher rate of population growth than any other county in Washington State since the 1980s. Many of the new smaller centers, including Korean shopping centers, were developed in the unincorporated territory during the late 1980s through the early 1990s. In 1990, the state legislated the Growth Management Act, in order to reduce uncoordinated sprawling development. It seems that both old and new smaller centers compete for spare market space of the incorporated areas which were already developed by the 1970s. All new smaller centers were located along major arterials like Highway 99, or in the vicinity of interchanges of freeways. Some small centers closed down because of competition from the others.

Many of the large centers developed during the 1990s selected better market strategies rather than simply competing for market space. Two large centers in downtown Seattle near I-5 created cinema complexes, as Everett Mall had done. Some suburban centers are called power centers, made of a set of discount stores and category killers. The other old centers with traditional tenant mixes can not help competing for market space with one another. Three large centers in the north part of the Seattle metropolitan area, Alderwood, Everett and Northgate Mall, have expanded quite recently.

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