Kamishibai originated in Japan's early Showa era for children's amusement perfomed by street performers. Later, Kamishibai was introduced into school education. During the wartime era, Kamishibai was used as a military propaganda media by the Japanese government.
After Japanese Forces occupied Indonesia, Kamishibai began to be used as a tool for pacifying the local peoples and to force them to cooperate with the Japanese military administration.
This parer analyzes why Kamishibai were produced and also clarifies what kinds of Kamishibai were produced in Indonesia under the Japanese Occupation.
Some of the author's results are:
(1) Kamishibai on the subject of “destroying the USA and UK” were produced for the purpose of propagandizing the significance of the war.
(2) Kamishibai on the subject of “saving money” and “increasing production” were produced for the purpose for the propagandizing the wartime economic policy.
(3) Kamishibai on the subject of “labor” and “social services” were produced for the purpose of maximizing contributions from Indonesians.
(4) Kamishibai on the subject of “tonarigumi” and “fujinkai” were produced for the purpose of organizing Indonesians.
(5) Kamishibai on the subject of “heiho” and “kaiin yoseijo (seamen's training center)” were produced for the purpose of recruiting Indonesian young men.
(6) There were many Kamishibai produced based on actual stories.
These topics were also used in movies, plays and radio broadcasts. The Japanese propaganda bureau used a number of media for the same campaign topic to get improve their results. Kamishibai had economical, mobile and popular characteristics. For example, Kamishibai could be produced at low cost, delivered to small remote villages by bicycle, and used of indoctrinating even illiterate people.

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The origin of dangdut, the most popular music in Indonesia, is said to be musik Melayu, which was played by orkes Melayu in the 1950s. But it has not been clarified how musik Melayu, which was only played in the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatera, and West Kalimantan, became popular and firmly established in Jawa, particularly in Batavia before the 1950s.
 This paper highlights the change and development of orkes Melayu in the late 19th century and early decades of the 20th century through the development of bangsawan and Komedi Stamboel, pre-modern theatre in Indonesia and Malaysia. In the late 19th century, bangsawan was not widely popular among the Javanese in Jawa because of its high Malay language and musik Melayu. But in the early 20th century, musik Melayu began to spread among Javanese people through Komedi Stamboel and other troupes which imitated the style of Komedi Stamboel. Under these conditions, samrah Betawi, which was greatly influenced by bangsawan, was formed at Batavia in 1918. Because Malay language called Melayu Betawi had been used as a common language among the inhabitants of Batavia, it was relatively easy for them to accept and enjoy Malay theatre and music. Musik samrah played in samrah Betawi was also influenced by musik Melayu in terms of the composition of musical instruments, scale and rhythm. The characteristic of musik samrah was the use of the harmonium, a typical Indian musical instrument, as a result of which musik samrah was often called orkes harmonium.
 It is likely that this orkes harmonium was the same as orkes Melayu which was often called orkes harmonium in the 1930s.

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It is largely agreed that the origin of dangdut, the most popular music in Indonesia, is musik Melayu. This paper highlights the changes and development of this musik Melayu, which was played by orkes Melayu in 1950-65.
 In 1951-54, Malayan films were so popular in Indonesia that the music in these films, especially P. Ramlee's songs, were favorites with Indonesian people and many orkes (musical groups) imitated and played P. Ramlee's songs. The most popular orkes Melayu at that time were Orkes Melayu Sinar Medan and Orkes Melayu Kenangan. In 1954-58, Orkes Melayu Bukit Siguntang reached the peak of its popularity, through such popular singers as Hasnah Tahar, Nur'ain, and Suhaimi. They combined diverse musical influences, including Indian and Latin music, with musik Melayu and composed songs that differed from the previous orkes Melayu. By 1959, Orkes Melayu Bukit Siguntang had declined in popularity under the onslaught of rock 'n' roll, although Serodja, a solemn Melayu song sung by Said Effendi, was a big hit in 1959-60.
 In the development of the concept of “Indonesia” following the “sumpah pemuda” (youth oath) of 1928, polemic about how a new Indonesian culture should be created, arose among intellectuals. This polemic was known as “polemik kebudayaan (Culture Polemic).” Kroncong was regarded as national music (musik nasional) because kroncong songs were composed and sung to encourage the Indonesian people during the war of Independence. But the popularity of kroncong had declined by 1954. Musik Melayu was then popular, but musik Melayu was not regarded as national music. Rather, it was thought of as a lower form than other kinds of music and as one type of ethnic music in Indonesia. The term Melayu had been used to indicate Indonesia, as in Bahasa Melayu (Bahasa Indonesia). But the term Melayu in musik Melayu referred to one of the ethnic groups in Indonesia. Orkes Melayu was called orkes Harmonium before the 1950s. But the name was changed to orkes Melayu because its musical style was largely influenced by Malay (Melayu) film songs.
 Sukarno criticized rock 'n' roll in his speech of 17th August 1959 as decadent and culture-imperialistic. In this leftwing political atmosphere, western culture like rock 'n' roll and film was restricted. In its place, Minangkabau (West Sumatera) songs became popular in 1960 as a good model of Indonesian national culture.
 Under these conditions, Orkes Kelana Ria was formed in 1962 and released a remarkable first album entitled “Kafilah.” Ellya Agus, one of the singers of this orkes, sang several Indian-influenced Melayu songs. Orkes Melayu had usually utilized gendang besides violin, piano, acoordion, clarinet, contrabass, guitar, and trumpet. But Orkes Kelana Ria utilized suling and gendang, two indispensable musical instruments for dangdut, for the first time. However, these songs by Ellya Agus were banned under the stronger leftwing political atmosphere, together with other young bands like Kose Bersaudara, because of the strong Indian and western influence displayed.

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The magazine Soeara NIROM (Voice of Nederlands Indische Radio Omroep Maatschappji), was issued periodically from 1934 to 1942 to introduce its radio program specifically to Indonesian-reading Nederlandsch-Indie listeners. NIROM itself was established in 1934 as an official network, first broadcasting in Dutch and subsequently in Indonesian. This paper attempts to depict the musical culture of the time by quantifying the frequency of music programs for each broadcasting station in October 1936 and January 1942. This analysis of musical programming depicts a very diverse musical culture in Nederlandsch-Indie and indicates that radio broadcasting, as a new medium, promoted interaction amongthe musical genres.
 In October 1936, music constituted more than 70% of radio programming in number of programs and approximately 83% in programming hours. Of the various musical genres broadcast by NIROM, six were dominant: kroncong, Javanese music, Sundanese music, Malay music, Chinese music, and Arabic music. Kroncong was the most popular. It seems that kroncong actively incorporated a musical element of rumba popularized all around the world by the 1930 hit song El Manicero. Consequently, a new style of kroncong rumba was created. A good example is Rumba Tamang Mango, sung by the Eurasian singer Annie Landouw. The most famous kroncong singers were S. Abudullah and Miss Iem, well known in Singapore and British Malaya as well. There was little local music except Gambang Kromong, an ensemble based in and around Batavia (Jakarta) that combined Indonesian and Chinese instruments and styles. Malay music was represented by bangsawan, a modern style combining Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and Western elements into traditional Malay music. Female singers like Miss Maimoon and Miss Tjiah were popular. These singers belonged to bangsawan groups in Singapore and British Malaya, as well as Nederlandsch-Indie. The popularity of Arabic music arose mainly from Arabic films starring actors like Om Kalsum and featuring the gambus, a lute instrument brought by Hadhramaut immigrants residing in Surabaya. A gambus group led by Syech Albar enjoyed high popularity.
 In 1942, the popularity of these six musical genres continued, although music programming itself had been reduced to approximately 44% of programs and 69% of programming hours. This was due to an increase in other programming, including news coverage of the eruption of war in Europe. Kroncong declined in frequency and program hours, with few new styles or singers emerging. Several genres of local music, such as Minangkabau, Ambon, Batak, and Acehnese, which had hardly been broadcast in 1936, were on the air. Chinese, Arab, and Malay songs were relatively more popular than they had been. Malay music became more diverse, with domestic groups such as Penghiboer Hati, Sinar Medan, and Patjaran Muda seeming to perform different styles than bangsawan. In the gambus genre, while Syech Albar's popularity was still high, many new gambus groups were established at Batavia, Semarang, Medan, and Garut (in West Java) outside Surabaya.
 In addition, the new genre of harmonium music had emerged by 1940 and was frequently aired. The harmonium, a small reed organ set in a box, was an essential instrument of modern Malay music. Judging from the sound source, it seems that harmonium music was basically gambus, or Arabic music, but because it emphasized the sound of the harmonium, it was regarded as Malay music. In fact, the style of gambus and Malay groups in the 1940s indicates that interaction among them took pace flexibly and easily. Some gambus groups, as well as Malay music groups, called themselves harmonium groups. By the early 1950s, these harmonium groups were calling themselves orkes melayu ...

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