Diplomatic relations between the Jeoson and Qing Dynasties were first established in 1637, marking the most important event in the history of the Korea's foreign relations to date. However, the circumstances leading up to that event have still not been made sufficiently clear. This article takes up the 1627 Chongmyo 丁卯 War, which marked the Qing Dynasty's first invasion of Korea as the starting point in the process by which diplomatic relations between the two countries were established. First, the author examines the relations between the Jeoson Dynasty and the Jurchen Kingdom of Aisin Gurun, the Qing Dynasty's predecessor, leading up to the 1627 invasion. Although the Jeoson government at the time had emphasized friendly relations with the former Ming Dynasty, it also was planning to dispatch envoys to Aisin Gurun in order to resume diplomatic negotiations. However, Aisin Gurun, out of intimidation by the forces of Ming General Mao Wen-Long 毛文竜 and a serious famine, decided to launch an invasion of Korea. The attack was thwarted by internal strife within the Aisin Gurun ranks over lack of preparedness in their military operations, and the disorganization also posed difficulties in suing for peace. The author then turns to diplomatic relations in the wake of the Chongmyo War. Due to differences in perception that arose between Hong Taiji, who remained in the Aisin Gurun capital of Shenyang, and Amin, the commander in chief at the front, two different peace treaties were concluded with Korea, one at Kanghwa, the other at Pyongyang. The Jeoson Dynasty chose ally to itself with Aisin Gurun based on the former treaty, since it agreed with Hong Taiji that this treaty did not specify the political superiority or advantage of either party. The author ends the article with an examination of the first dispatch of envoys by the two states based on the Kanghwa Treaty. He concludes that the extremely proactive attitude shown by the Jeoson government resulted in the withdrawal of the Aisin Gurun army from Uiju on the northern border. Furthermore, in the peace negotiations there were no discussions of exchanging tributary gifts on a regular basis or opening trading posts on the border, indicating an agreement far different from setting up mutual relations of friendship between the two states. From that time on such fluidity characterizing Jeoson-Aisin Gurun relations would continue to a certain extent, which is directly attributable to the vagueness of the peace treaty concluded after the Chongmyo War.

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The Soh-tang (書堂), the Soh-ohai (書斎) or the Kul-pan (〓〓) was a private village school in Korea, founded in most cases upon the voluntary desires of village people, in which the boys of the village were gathered in one room and taught by one teacher. The training at this institution was basically in the reading and writing of Chinese characters, and this basic training was given with the purpose of training the boys for future scholarship in the Chinese classics, even after the abolition of the Kwa-go (科挙) system. We must take two aspects of the Soh-tang into consideration. The first is the Soh-tang as a survival of the old-time classical education. Mainly because of this old-fashioned form, the Government- General of Chosen established the modern school education, disregarding the existence of the Soh-tang. But, in spite of this policy, the Soh-tang continued to spread its roots deeply throughout the country without any change in the original form, and this should be considered as the second aspect. When it comes to the point of evaluating the position of the Soh-tang in the education of Korea, opinions are divided according to the emphasis laid upon either one of these two aspects. We can see that the energy of the Korean people in the educational field was exhibited conspiciously and yet dynamically in terms of the Soh-tang, thus the key to the understanding of Korean education depends essentially upon the evaluation of education in the Soh-tang. The Mok Min Sin Soh (丁若〓), by Tyong Yak Yong (牧民心書) in 1821, describes the Soh-chai as a school that could be found, one school for a few villages, with only one teacher, who the teacher was a commoner in every case. Although the number of Soh-chai in relation to the number of villages was not as high as in the 20th century, the Soh-chai, nevertheless, existed in the same form all over the country in the early years of the 19th century. In reading the Chong Yo Soh (政要書), the policy guide-books for the county heads (country magistrates), we can see what advice was given to the county heads concerning the promotion of country education. A study of these Chong Yo Soh (政要書) thus makes it possible tc learn something about the Soh-tang's education and it's background at that time. Consequently, in this study historical data for the Soh-tang from the guide-books written in the 18th century have been gathered, and an attempt made to understand the main features and developmental process of the institutions under study. The following information has been derived as a result of this research study. (1) The Hang Kyo (郷校), which was the government secondary school attached to Confusiam temple in the county, and the Soh-won (書院), which was a sort of private secondary school attached to spirit temple, had both declined in educational function at that time. Therefore, the education for the Chu Chai (取才), in other words, the education for the Kwa Yop (科業) (a system of education strictly for the selection of superior government officials) and the education for the To Hak (道学) (education stressing moral and humane values) had disintegrated. (2) Hence the county heads tried to promote education which would guide the people in bettering their community lives by the reinforcement of the Hang Kyo (郷校). As a result, the object of education was enlarged to include all the people in the country. (3) In this case, the county heads had to depend upon the education of lower, native institutions among the country people. (4) At that time there were various kinds of institutions which gave education at the elementary level to the country boys. These institutions were intended to form a foundation under the Hang Kyo (郷校) and the Soh-won (書院). But, on the other hand the educational function of these two had declined, and it was also quite difficult to hope for recovery or revival. Consequently, education in the various elementary institutions among th

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