In this study, through the perspective outlined below, I discuss how the number of “martial ways" adherents expanded after the Meiji era, in which the warrior class, the primary supporter of the martial arts, collapsed, and was altered into a form more befitting a modern state, as well as how these arts developed into the aspect of national culture known as “martial ways."

1. The decline and return of martial arts in the early Meiji era

1) The police increasingly became an entry route into the martial arts, through the recruitment of famous martial artists successful in kenjyutsu shows called Gekiken kogyo and increased martial arts training for police officers; this was achieved by connecting the liberal democratic movement with martial artists and honing the movement toward martial arts training among civil rights advocates.

2) Martial arts were often practiced within the imperial court, perhaps for the purpose of appealing to the identity of the state. The incorporation of the martial arts, which was a part of the traditional warrior culture, into the functions of the imperial court may have been a strategy for establishing the modern imperial system.

3) Jigoro Kano rationalized and systematized the learning and teaching of Judo and founded Kodokan Judo as a method of the education for youth in the modern state.

2. The Invention of “Martial Ways"

1) “Martial ways" were invented in Japan for ensuring the survival of Japan's ancient traditional culture by preserving old customs and integrating these with the national awareness that had demonstrated dissatisfaction with the policies of extreme Europeanization prevalent since the Meiji Restoration; further, it was done to express Japan's cultural identity as a venerable state to foreign countries.

3. The Expansion of Classes Accepting Martial Ways

As has been noted, “martial ways," invented in the modern age, has been adopted as a broad national culture. This is indicated by various aspects, such as the creation of an association of martial arts organizations, the establishment of Dai Nippon Butoku Kai in 1895 for the education in and preservation of the martial arts, the movement to incorporate martial arts into regular school curricula, and the activities of youth associations and groups formed for the development of local youth.

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Among the activities of the Dai-Nippon Butoku-kai, particular importance was attached to the training of budo instructors. The Budō Kyōin Yōseikei Daigaku (Budo Normal School) was founded in 1905, and then the Budō Senmon Gakko (Budo Vocational School) in 1912. The school was for boys over the age of 17 and is said to have been influential in the development of youth in modern Japan.

This paper will focus on the activities for youth undertaken by the Dai-Nippon Butoku-kai in its foundation period before the establishment of the Budo Normal School and to clarify its specific characteristics.

For a research method, a theory will be constructed by a careful study of newspapers, as in previous research. Articles related to the Butoku-kai in the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun and Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun from April 17, 1895, when the Butoku-kai was established, to April 17, 1904, that are concerned with activities for youths will be looked at and their contents clarified.

From a comprehensive study of the articles related to the Butoku-kai in the period in question, the main activities for youths were the Great Butokusai Demonstration, Great Youth Demonstration, short boat races, and long-distance swimming meets. In these activities, the greatest importance was placed on youth budo because of the influence of Watanabe Noboru. Through budo (bujutsu) and short boat races, it is clear that the Butoku-kai made great efforts in the development of youths in two ways: using the intrinsic educational and military characteristics of budo.

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Naginata made a fresh start as a sport after World War II and in its new form, “Rhythm Naginata”, in which practitioners perform to rhythm such as music, was created. This study examines the process in which Rhythm Naginata was created and developed and the main instigators, and explores possibilities in the future development of Naginata as a field which demonstrates the diversity of budo arts.
 The budo arts were originally developed for combat. In post-war Naginata, however, Rhythm Naginata came to be utilised in the training and acquisition of basic moves and techniques such as forms of etiquette through the traditional process of learning Kata. This is because modern budo arts aim for character building, and are practiced by people as popular forms of traditional physical exercise. In tracing the origins of Rhythm Naginata, we find that “Naginata-Mai” (dance) was performed in Shinto rituals throughout Japan for invoking rain or abundant crops. Naginata-Mai, which was an elegant system of exercise considered suitable for girls, was created by Ozawa Unosuke. He was an educator who invented bujutsu-taisō (martial art calisthenics) in the latter years of the Meiji era when Naginata had yet to be approved as an authorized field of study in the education system.
 In the post-war era, Rhythm Naginata was initiated by Sonobe Shigehachi, headmaster of Jikishinkage-ryū. It is clearly stated in a bulletin published in 1966 that he coined the term “Rhythm Naginata”. Sonobe’s successors, Yamamoto Misao and Kajiyama Takeko, demonstrated Rhythm Naginata accompanied by piano for the first time as a public display at the 10th National Athletic Meet. In 1961, Mori Kiyoko, a teacher at Asaka Junior High School in Saitama Prefecture, created Rhythm Naginata for junior high school students, and demonstrated it at a Naginata meet. Yano Tsune, who studied the Tendō-ryū Naginata as one of the first generation of students in the Butokukai’s Naginata course, led the performance of Rhythm Naginata by students from Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences at the Kobe Universiade in 1985. It was accompanied by traditional Japanese music and mainly displayed techniques from classical Naginata. Rhythm Naginata successfully achieved two outcomes: 1) it could be utilised as an effective educational medium; and 2) as a representation of Naginata’s cultural value it contributed to the spread and development of Naginata by showcasing its aesthetically pleasing movements and skills required in using a long weapon. Further study is needed to ascertain the connection between Naginata Mai and Rhythm Naginata.

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I compared the construction plan of Butokuden (i.e., an arena for Judo and Kendo) in Tokyo before World War II with the post-war Nippon Budokan competition. In designing the two gymnasiums, a great debate arose as to whether to use a bold non-pillar space with a steel structure, or a Japanese-style roof expression. Ultimately, the Japanese-style roof design was deemed easier to understand for Japanese people. I analyzed why Sutemi Horiguchi had a critical attitude toward this roof expression, as well as how Mamoru Yamada used this same roof expression to win the first prize in the Nippon Budokan competition.

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　The present study aimed to clarify the establishment of Judo etiquette during the wartime and postwar periods. Nakamura (2011) discussed Japanese martial arts etiquette in modern Japan. In his work, however, he dealt largely with Kendo etiquette, and inadequately addressed the history of Judo, as well as overlooking the period of Allied occupation (1945–1952). This article focuses on the reformation of Judo etiquette in that period and clarifies its historical background.
　It was revealed that, first, the enactment of etiquette in August 1940 was intended to be a criticism of Taro Inaba, who was excommunicated at the Kodokan. Inaba had criticized the Kodokan and the Dai Nippon Butokukwai, stating that when a judoka stands and bows with shizen hontai (natural posture) it reflects disrespect to the emperor. During the war, with the increasing influence of State Shinto, Inaba’s claim could have undermined Judo’s social credibility. Therefore, the Kodokan and Butokukwai abolished shizen hontai and in its place instituted the posture of attention, the basic Shinto posture, and this was also followed by the military and adopted in middle school games; thus, the current system of courtesy was established during this period. Furthermore, the practice of sitting on tatami mats with the left knee and standing up with the right foot was adopted in 1943 to match the postures stipulated in State Shinto.
　The etiquette established during the war was modified during the Occupation, when bowing to feudal seniors and the kamidana were abolished. In addition, the choice of bowing posture, whether at attention or a natural posture, was left to the practitioners. In this way, it can be said that Judo etiquette was democratized.
　However, college students’ conduct during Judo bouts was disturbed after the Tokyo Olympics in 1964. Consequently, wartime etiquette was revived. However, the Kodokan did not disclose that its etiquette was influenced by State Shinto and the military. The official line was that the etiquette was based on principles of Judo such as seiryoku-zenyo (maximum use of energy) and jita kyoei (mutual welfare and benefit).

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