本稿では、9 回目と 10 回目の「CASIO 杯中国日本語専攻学部生・院生スピーチ・ディベート大会」におけるディベート試合を紹介した上で、その問題点及び改善できる点を提示・分析した。そして、大会出場選手を対象にアンケート調査を行い、回収したデータを分析して提示した。更に、今後中国大陸におけるディベート教育をより良く発展させるための改善策についても検討した。

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In this paper, on the 30th anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, I reexamined the connection and disconnection between the modern constitutionalism in western Europe and the Chinese constitution (thought and system). The constitutional review was employed as the focal point in this discussion.

First, the constitutional review has two meanings: the protection of human rights and the protection of constitutional order. The constitutional review is one of the crucial elements of constitutionalism. Its system and operation are a measure of realization and retention of the constitutionalism.

Second, the Chinese constitution enacted in 1982 was based on the bitter experiences of the Cultural Revolution. In order to protect human rights and constitutional order, various discussions were held to decide what kind of constitutional review system was to be established. Furthermore, the Chinese government and CCP rejected the judicial review and chose their own version of constitutional review that is carried out by the People’s Congress.

Finally, there is a gulf between the modern constitutionalism in western Europe and the Chinese constitution. The Chinese constitution imposes the duty of upholding and abiding by the constitution not only to the government but also to its citizens. At the same time, it is reluctant to ensure the relativity of individuals’ values. At the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, the Chinese government and CCP criticized the students and intellectuals for joining the protest and openly violating the constitution. This accusation symbolizes the gap between the modern constitutionalism in western Europe and the Chinese constitution.

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 Introduction:
 University campuses started to be built since the late 19th century in China, strongly influenced by the Beaux-Arts planning style, characterized by monumental buildings with strong axis and enclosed open space. Together with the main buildings constructed in different periods, such open spaces become representive spaces in the uiniversities, and also form outdoor activity and circulation spaces for students and faculties with various landscape elements such as garden, square, walking path, bench, etc.. By analysing the functions and layout of landscape elements under the influence of the distinctive Chinese cultural and social background, this study aims to clarify the characteristics of landscape composition in open spaces in China.

 Methods:
 One open space faced by main buildings and enclosed by buildings or urban roads on at least two sides is defined as "campus open space unit (COS unit)", and the set of such units as "COS". Based on such definitions, 142 COS units and 54 COS are extracted from 54 campuses built before 1949.
 Firstly, by dividing the construction year of buildings into four phases according to the Chinese historical background, phases of buildings surrounding the COS units and the number of COS units in each campus were examined as a brief overview.
 Secondly, in order to discuss the functional characteristics of landscape elements, types of plane/line/point elements related to the static/dynamic behavior, and their combination were examined in each COS unit.
 Thirdly, in order to discuss how landscape elements form a symbolic space with the surrounding buildings, layout of landscape elements related to the main building and school gate were examined in each COS unit.
 Fourthly, based on the results above, 6 patterns of landscape unit categorized by the combination of function and layout of landscape elements were discussed. Moreover, according to the static/dynamic and symbolic/non-symbolic characters, combinations of these patterns in each campus were divided into 8 types of landscape composition, and distribution of cases, relations and inclination of types were examined.

 Results:
 1) Multiple COS units, surrounding by buildings built in different phases, are formed in many campuses.
 2) More COS units were built as static gardens by vegetation and water than only as square or playground for dynamic activities. Influenced by the traditional Chinese culture, natural environment is considered appropiate to the campus, rather than built by only artificial materials.
 3) Completely symmetric layout is formed by only one strong axis, while basically/partially symmetric layout is sometimes formed by multiple axes of main buildings constructed in different phases. More symmetric layouts are usually formed by one plane element, while multiple elements mixed in one COS unit are in less symmetry.
 4) Static and dynamic, symbolic and non-symbolic COS units coexist in many campuses. More COS units with single plane element connected to the school gate are gardens and in symmetric layout, creating a sequence from formal to casual, while the ones with multiple elements create continuous spaces with various atmospheres for different activities.

 Conclusions:
 This study has clarified that the characteristics of landscape composition in open spaces in China are related to the function and layout of landscape elements. By the construction over years with different time trends, open spaces are composed by various landscape elements in symmetric or asymmetric layout, forming a hybrid characteristics in many campuses.

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 Introduction:
 University campuses started to be built since the late 19th century in China, strongly influenced by the Beaux-Arts planning style, characterized by monumental buildings with strong axis and enclosed open space. Such open spaces become representive spaces in the uiniversities, and building elevations facing to the space create the scenery of universities by forming a continuous panorama. Meanwhile, campus constructions in each stage are greatly influenced by the distinctive cultural and social background in China. For example, in the foundation phase of Chinese universities, the collision and blend between Chinese and Western culture were experienced. However, nowadays with the rapid growth of student numbers and the rethink of the university tradition, new time issues are raised. Under such historical background, this study aims to clarify the characteristics of scenery formed by the elevation and arragement of buildings surrounding open spaces in universities in China.

 Methods:
 Open spaces faced by main buildings and enclosed by buildings or urban roads on at least two sides are extracted as "campus open spaces (COS)" from 54 campuses built before 1949, and elevations facing to COS are extracted as scenery forming elements. Based on such definitions, 54 groups of buildings, 183 main buildings and 996 building elevations are found.
 Firstly, by dividing the construction year of buildings into four phases according to the Chinese historical background, phases of buildings and building distribution in COS were examined as a brief overview.
 Secondly, in order to discuss the characteristics of building appearances, style and color of buildings were examined and compared in each campus.
 Thirdly, in order to discuss how tbuildings and open spaces are integrated, and how main buildings are emphasized, arrangement and volume comparison of buildings were examined.
 Fourthly, based on the results above, 12 scenery patterns categorized by the combination of comparison of building style and color, and the arrangement of buildings were discussed. Characteristics of each pattern, distribution of cases, relations and inclination of patterns were examined.

 Results:
 1) By the campus construction over the years, not only buildings but also main buildings facing the COS were built in various phases.
 2) Most buildings built in Phase I are in traditional Chinese/Western styles with corresponding materials in specific colors, and such stylish characteristics continued to be utilized in buildings built afterwards. In the comparison of building stlye and color, cases that are "partly similar" or "similar in majority" are similar only in color, and cases "almost similar" are in the same style and color.
 3) A multi-center arrangement can be observed in many campuses, where multiple axes formed by different main buildings have integrated different groups of buildings. Main buildings built after Phase II became in larger scale, emphasized by the standing-out volume.
 4) Harmony of building appearance and integration of building arrangement are both considered in the formation of campus scenery in about half of the cases. However, because of the overlying constructions in different phases, some campuses have maintained either harmonious appearance or integrated arrangement. Some even developed in a disorder way and buildings reflect different features of the time.

 Conclusions:
 This study has clarified that the characteristics of scenery formed by buildings surrounding open spaces in universities in China are related to the similarities of elevation appearance and the order of building arrangement. Under the Chinese cultural and social background, campus sceneries formed by these buildings reflect both the tradition of each university and trends of the time so that they contain various characteristics.

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Chinese trade unions have been faced with a set of new challenges under marketization. First, they are faced with a decline in their membership that is accompanied by both a rapid increase in the private sector and by the restructuring of state-owned enterprises. Secondly, an increase in labor-management conflicts among the ‘working class’ is occurring and needs to be managed more effectively in terms of practical day-to-day operations and in the equally important arena of ideology. These new conditions have made some union cadres and scholars clearly recognize the necessity for revitalization of trade unions as a distinct interest group of laborers. The discussions on the fundamental reforms, including the reforms of the personnel and financial management systems of the trade unions, have been heated.
This paper focuses on the controversies surrounding the general membership, the cadre management and financial management systems, and categorizes them into a passive reform approach and a drastic reform approach.
The aim of a passive reform approach is to enlarge the roles of the trade unions as interest groups, while maintaining relations with and their position as a part of the party and thegovernment. The proponents of this approach argue that trade union membership should be open not only to management staff of state-owned enterprises but also to private entrepreneurs who are now redefined as responsible parties to build socialism according to the‘ Three Represent’ theory. Regarding the trade union cadre management system, this approach advocates letting vice-party chairpersons or vice-administrative managers serve as chairpersons of basic-level trade unions concurrently in order to elevate the position of the trade unions. As for financial matters, this approach proposes to commission the tax revenue department to collect union dues from enterprises in order to solve the problem of non-payment and it even proposes to redefine the union dues as ‘workers’ rights and interests protection tax’.
Unlike passive reform, the aim of a drastic reform approach is to make the trade unions more independent from the party and the government by separating personnel and financialmanagement systems. In order to facilitate and support them to better represent and protect bluecollar workers’ interests, this approach precludes private entrepreneurs or management staff of state-owned enterprises from being union members. Regarding the cadre management systems, the drastic reform approach opposes letting entrepreneurs and their relatives and even the management of state-owned enterprises become committee members of basic-level trade unions.Direct elections of chairpersons of basic-level trade unions; the establishment by local-level trade unions of a cadre-bank to send appropriate staff to basic levels; and recruiting local trade union committee members based on examinations, are notable examples of drastic reforms that aim to empower the unions to manage their own cadres independently of the party and the government.Moreover, proponents of the drastic reform approach feel that the trade unions should not depend financially on enterprises but should rely only on their membership fees. And they are also negative about asking the tax revenue departments to collect union dues as it may confuse financial affairs of trade unions with administrative financial affairs.
The trade union reform movement seems to be advancing very slowly, caught in a cleft stick between these two approaches. However, the controversies contain significant policy arguments which could generate tremors to shake the foundations of national ideology and the one-party system.

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