The conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the West in the twelfth century has been one of the most important themes in Byzantine history. Some papers have even hinted that the Byzantines, including the Byzantine historian Nicetas Choniates, preferred the Muslims as neighbors to the Cathoric Westerners. Previous papers have generally argued that Choniates, who wrote his History from 1185 to 1207, testified to this conflict when he criticizes the Westerners who conquered Constantinople in 1204.
A survey of his use of expressions with γενος, εθνος and βαρβαρος, however, shows that he valued the Westerners most highly among the various peoples around the Empire. While the Byzantines are always referred to as γενος (=people), the Turks as the Muslims most known to the Byzantines at that time are always referred to as βαρβαρος (=barbarian). The peoples in the Balkan Peninsula play only relatively negligible roles in his book. The Westerners are sometimes referred to as γενος who had friendly relationships (=øιλος, øιλιος and øιλια) with the Byzantines, although they are also sometimes referred to as βαρβαρος when they used crude violence to-wards the Byzantines. These facts indicate that Choniates distinguished between the Westerners and the other peoples around the Empire and that he had a prejudice against the Turks.
In short, the History should not be interpreted in light of the conflict between the West and the Byzantine Empire. It is true that Choniates blamed the Westerners for their cruel conquest, but in comparison with his view of the Turks, it can still be argued that he speaks for the pro-Western Byzantines who regarded the friendships with the Western countries as the vital means of saving their Empire.

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L'histoire de la litterature francaise considere le plus souvent Marcel Schwob (1867-1905), ecrivain d'une grande puissance d'imagination, comme l'un des conteurs de grand talent de la fin du XIX^e siecle. La plupart des etudes consacrees a cet ecrivain ne traitent en effet que de ses contes. Il y a tres peu d'6tudes consacrees a une particularite pourtant interessante de Schwob : la double appartenance de Schwob, juive et francaise. Certes, on chercherait en vain le mot ≪juif≫ dans les textes d'un auteur par ailleurs tres discret sur sa judeite. Mais il ne nous semble pas que l'on puisse dire qu'il n'y a pas de rapport entre les motifs de l'ecriture schwobienne et la double identite de l'auteur lui-meme. L'epoque dans laquelle it vit est en effet difficile pour les juifs. Et surtout, on ne peut negliger le mouvement d'antisemitisme de la fin du XIX^e siecle. Durant les annees qui precedent l'affaire Dreyfus, nombre d'elements se conjuguent, qui suscitent une violente poussee d'antisemitisme. Que signifie pour Schwob, et son ecriture, le fait d'etre juif ? Nous nous proposons, dans le present article, de mettre en lumiere, a la lecture de La Croisade des enfants (1896), une dimension cachee de Schwob, ecrivain juif. Pour decrire un evenement qui a profondement marque l'histoire du Moyen Age, le conteur a choisi de soumettre au lecteur, juxtaposes, les recits de huit personnes. Bien qu'elle puisse etre consideree, par son theme meme, comme ≪tres chretienne≫, l'oeuvre contient de nombreux elements heterodoxes ou meme juifs, et remet en question, insidieusement, le bien-fond6 de l'obeissance absolue a la hisrarchie ecclesiastique. C'est en fait un texte qui, tout en traitant le theme chretien de la Croisade, prend ses distances, sur le fond, avec l'historiographie chretienne. Ce que tous les recits mettent en relief, c'est d'abord et avant tout, l'innocence des enfants, victimes d'un enthousiasme religieux devoye. Confronts a l'antisemitisme de son siecle, Schwob ne prend pas le parti de decrire le vecu des juifs ou de proclamer sa judeite. Mais sa discretion nest pas le resultat d'une acceptation passive de ce qui est. Elle est le produit d'une strategie qui vise, indirectement, a susciter le doute et la msfiance a l'egard de l'enthousiasme de la fin de siecle.

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how the five emperors in the Dynasty of Lascaris (1204-1261) succeeded to the throne is discussed here. The succession by the blood relation as Theodoros I, Theodoros II, John IV, and the succession by the marriage as John III, continued the family line of Lascaris. But a usurpation by Michael VIII has gone to ruin the family of Lascaris. The patriarch and the aristcracy in Nicaea supported the family line of the dynasty.

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We know that human societies consist of communities and associations. After the Tokugawa period, Japan has been organized for sustaining of these associational families, also in the time of Meiji Emperor system, and in the governmentally regulated highly economical society after the second-world-war. These communalized associations have been changed into a self-satisfying closed community. However, at the collapse of bubble economy in 1990 decade through the end of cold war between USA and Soviet Union, Japanese leaders have noticed the importance of communal relationships, had brought the package law of decentralization into force in April 2000. These situations will provide Japan and Japanese the conditions to function conscience. Conscience works only in communal relationships, affording every person freedom to conduct and judge by oneself, changing every association on earth into global citizens. Morality belongs to the closed community, on the other, ethics and conscience belongs to international global secular pluralistic society.

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