Tourist Spatiotemporal Behavior in Cross-Border Tourism Area:

A Qualitative Study in the Case of Indonesia-Timor Leste

Abstract

Cross-border tourism is an emerging topic in the field of tourism, which is still being debated at the level of its definition and characteristics. The debate is important because it can enrich and make the topic of cross-border tourism more mature. In cross-border tourism, tourist spatiotemporal is an essential aspect. Tourist spatiotemporal is a specific study to support the debate on cross-border tourism along with the growth of border areas. Therefore, this study aims to explore tourist spatiotemporal behavior in three border area between Indonesia-Timor Leste. By examining the characteristics of tourist engaged in cross-border tourism, this study seeks to offer a deeper understanding of their behavior. It also aims to provide valuable insights for stakeholders who are involved in managing cross-border tourism. This study employed qualitative methods, specifically through semi-structured interviews to collect data from 30 East Timorese citizens who had crossed Indonesia-Timor Leste border. It was conducted for three months, with one month spent at border gate for each country. Respondents were selected through purposive sampling, taking into account both representativeness and data requirements. This study highlights the unique characteristics of tourist who visit border region between Indonesia-Timor Leste, specifically in area of Mota'ain, Wini, and Motamasin. The results showed that these areas have distinct spatiotemporal behavior among tourist. These differences are observed in various aspects, such as their preferred mode of transportation, motivation for travel, length of stay, and movement patterns. Spatiotemporal characteristics of the three border area between Indonesia-Timor Leste are influenced by a variety of factors. Therefore, this study highlights the importance of diversifying tourist attractions in Indonesia-Timor Leste border area. Improving connectivity between destinations is essential in facilitating tourist visits to Indonesia. In this study, limitations were encountered in applying semi-structured interviews, which took a long time. Furthermore, aspects of motivational links, history, identity, and relations between the two countries have yet to be explored in this study, so future studies are expected to be able to fill this limitation.

Introduction

Tourism and mobility are closely intertwined as tourism involves the temporary movement of individuals to and from destinations. According to Timothy, Dallen J and Gelbman (2023) tourism is defined as an individual leaving their usual residence and traveling to a destination for a specific purpose. Mobility, on the other hand, comprises three essential elements, including the human element that moves, the spatial element where humans make movement, and the temporal element about time (Caldeira and Kastenholz, 2020). The spatial and temporal elements are closely intertwined, forming what is commonly known as spatiotemporal (Hägerstrand, 1973; Riungu, Peterson et al., 2018). Tourist spatiotemporal behavior refers to the spatial movement of tourist that are directly related to the element of time.

Although the study on mobility and spatiotemporal behavior in tourism is important, it has not been thoroughly explored (Wearing and Foley, 2017). Understanding spatiotemporal behavior of tourist is essential for successful destination development, both locally and internationally. In the local context, spatiotemporal behavior can assist in evaluating destination development, while in the international context, it can describe the relationship between two neighboring countries (Han, Kim et al., 2018). A thorough understanding of tourist spatiotemporal behavior is necessary for successful destination development (Bauder and Freytag, 2015). Despite its significance, few studies have been conducted, as evidenced by the works of Caldeira and Kastenholz (2020); Gu, Zhang et al. (2021); Mou, Liu et al. (2022); Shi, Xin et al. (2020); Sisi (2019) and Yun, Kang et al. (2018). A comprehensive study on tourist spatiotemporal behavior in cross-border tourism needs to be done because it has yet to be done.

Previous studies have given significant attention to cross-border tourism. While there is still no consensus on the definition of this term, the scientific community continues to expand its knowledge through new works of literature, such as those conducted by Boonchai and Freathy (2020) and Hampton (2010). Although this particular study does not directly participate in the ongoing discourse surrounding cross-border tourism, it offers valuable insights that can enhance the current discussion on this topic.

Indonesia is an archipelagic nation situated near ten neighboring countries, making it an ideal location for cross-border tourism development. Currently, Indonesian government has designated ten official cross-border tourism area, including Batam, Bintan, Entikong, Aruk, Nanga Badau, Motaain, Wini, Motamasin Skouw, and Sota. This study focuses on the Mota'ain, Wini, and Motamasin border, which serve as entry points for tourist from Timor-Leste. The above explanation has emphasized the importance of this study. Therefore, this study addresses how tourist spatiotemporal behavior manifests in the border area between Indonesia-Timor Leste.

Figure 1. Locus of study in three Indonesia-Timor Leste border area

Literature Review

Cross-border tourism

For centuries, borders have played a significant role in separating human populations, primarily due to the principles of sovereignty and colonialism (Timothy, Dallen J and Gelbman, 2023). There has been a paradigm shift in recent times, with a new perspective on border emerging. Border that were once perceived as inter-ethnic barriers or security and sovereignty lines have now evolved to encompass new discourses oriented toward economics and tourism (Barth, 2010; Ohmae, 1990; Timothy, Dallen J, Saarinen et al., 2016).

Cross-border tourism, which involves crossing international boundaries between directly adjacent countries, has become an increasingly popular form of recreational activity (Timothy, Dallen J., 1995). Despite its growing significance, there has yet to be a consensus on the definition and characteristics of cross-border tourism (Hampton, 2010). Numerous prior investigations have been carried out to enhance comprehension of cross-border tourism, and this study is no different.

Cross-border tourism continues to be an important topic of discussion related to boundaries and attracts attention from various literature every year. Prior research has been carried out within the framework of cross-border tourism. For instance, studies on the role of identity in cross-border tourism, partnership and SDGs, cultural tourism, and cross-border cooperation (Ferrer-Roca, Guia et al., 2022; Hardi, Kupi et al., 2021; Khmeleva, Kurnikova et al., 2022). No literature has examined tourist spatiotemporal behavior in the field of cross-border tourism. Such studies that aim to determine movement patterns, motivation, and tourist behavior can have significant implications for stakeholders involved in policy-making, particularly in border area.

Mobility in Cross-border Tourism

When assessing mobility in tourism, it is common to consider both inter-destination and intra-destination movement. Previous studies have predominantly focused on examining tourist mobility. For instance, Yu, Li et al. (2017) conducted a study on Mount Fanjing, while Han, Kim et al. (2018) examined intra-destination spatial movement in Seoul. Zhao, Lu et al. (2018) also investigated tourist mobility in Xi'an, Xu, Yuan et al. (2019) explored cycling tourism in China, Zhou and Chen (2023) examined tourist mobility in Hong Kong, and most recently, Azman, Abd Rahman et al. (2021) explored the topic in Johor.

There are various ways to understand mobility in tourism, and one of them is through spatiotemporal behavior. This approach involves examining different elements such as tourist spatial behavior, motivation, length of stay, travel time, and movement patterns. Movement patterns are closely linked to tourist' behavior since they leave their place of origin and travel to specific destinations (Zhao, Lu et al., 2018). This particular element can be categorized as inter-destination and intra-destination (Smallwood, Beckley et al., 2012). Inter-destination movement refers to tourist traveling from one destination to another (Leung, Wang et al., 2012). Meanwhile, intra-destination refers to tourist visiting several sites within a single destination (Han, Kim et al., 2018).

Tourist motivation is a crucial element that exhibits various variations in cross-border tourism. To this end, Park, Musa et al. (2019) have identified several components of tourist motivation. Firstly, the nature aspect, that revolving around motivation such as enjoying beaches/sea, getting close to nature, experiencing mountains, indulging in scuba diving and snorkeling, experiencing the nightlife, and attending sporting events. Secondly, the economic aspect, which revolves around motivation such as taking advantage of low taxes on products/services, availing oneself of cheap flights, benefitting from high prices in one's home country, finding low prices in destinations, making purchases at duty-free shops/products, benefitting from low exchange rates, having access to a vast array of products, taking advantage of promotional offers, and engaging in bargain hunting at renowned individual malls or centers. Thirdly, the cultural aspect, that revolving around motivation such as enjoying the rural landscape, visiting historical attractions, experiencing diverse cultures and ways of life, satisfying one's curiosity about local traditional lifestyle, experiencing homestays, attending cultural events, and enjoying urban landscapes.

Tourist Movement Patterns

Tourist movement patterns have been a subject of interest in works of literature across various fields of study. Previous literature has aimed to identify the spatial behavior and movement patterns of tourist. Initially, Gunn (1988) described two types of tourist movement patterns: destination and touring. A destination aspect is a one-way journey from tourist's origin to a single destination, while a touring trip is a partial or circular route taken by tourist. Furthermore, studies have expanded on this framework to better understand tourist spatial behavior and movement patterns.

As mentioned earlier, literature have extensively studied tourist movement patterns, but most of them has mainly focused on intra-destination and inter-destination movement within border of a country. This study examines the inter-destination movement patterns in cross-border tourism. The framework Lau and McKercher (2006) proposed, which distinguished between single, multiple, and complex tourist movement patterns, was used in this study.

Table 1. Tourist Movement Patterns

Pattern		Detail explanation
Single	Single point	Travelers visit destinations and return on the same route
Multiple	Base site	After visiting the main location, tourists set up basecamps for their following excursions to other locations within the same region.
	Stopover	On the way to or from the main site, tourists typically stop at additional sights.
	Chaining loop	Travelers visit destinations without repetition. Tourist visit attractions related to major destinations
Complex	Destination region loop complex	Tourist visit using direct routes to major destinations. From there, travellers embark on a circuitous route to another destination
	Complex neighborhood	Travelers visit one destination and then head to another without repetition. This patterns is a mixture of all complex tourist movement patterns.

Source: Lau and McKercher (2006).

Tourist Spatiotemporal Behavior

The study of spatiotemporal behavior in tourism is a crucial aspect as it can provide valuable insights into tourist activities and guide tourism planning and development. Although the study process is complex, several approaches can be employed. These include the use of questionnaires, structured interviews, GPS technology, mobile phone data, system timing, video-based analysis, and modelling (Dejbakhsh, 2009).

Tourist spatiotemporal behavior is a complex concept that includes various factors, such as mobility, spatial aspects, tourist activities, and time (Hall, 2005; Lau and McKercher, 2006; Lew and McKercher, 2006). Many studies have examined spatiotemporal behavior in the field of tourism, including (Caldeira and Kastenholz, 2020; Hou, Liu et al., 2021; Lee, Tussyadiah et al., 2010; Li, Guo et al., 2022; Tussydiah and Fesenmaier, 2007). However, the majority of them have focused on a specific region or country, and there is a lack of literature regarding tourist spatiotemporal behavior in the context of cross-border tourism.

The analysis of tourist spatiotemporal behavior has undergone significant development, and studies have employed various methods to achieve their objectives. One commonly used method is GPS, as evidenced by the works of Hou, Liu et al. (2021); Liu, Wang et al. (2022); Sisi (2019). Other methods such as photography-based study, computer deep learning models, smart card data, and simulation using social media data have also been employed, as documented in the works of Fang, Homma et al. (2023) and Shi, Long et al. (2022). However, it is worth noting that qualitative approaches have been used in the study of tourist spatiotemporal behavior, including questionnaire-based and interview-based study (Gu, Zhang et al., 2021; Lee, Tussyadiah et al., 2010; Shi, Long et al., 2022).

Materials and Methods

This study used qualitative methods, specifically through semi-structured interviews to collect data. The participants selected were tourist who returned from Indonesia to Timor Leste and had crossed through three cross-border tourism area: Mota'ain, Motamasin, and Wini. Therefore, this study solely focuses on tourist returning from Timor Leste. These three border are land area that serve as crucial connecting points between Indonesia-Timor Leste.

To collect data, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten tourist who had already finished crossing border and were returning to Timor-Leste. A total of 30 tourists were interviewed in this study. In qualitative studies, 30 tourists are considered sufficient (Kar and Ramalingam, 2013) and can represent a sample of three borders between Indonesia - Timor Leste because this study also applies purposive sampling, which can increase the effectiveness and representativeness of tourists. The data was collected over one month, from February 14, 2023, to March 14, 2023. To ensure that the data collected was not homogeneous, the participants were selected through purposive sampling. The semi-structured interviews focused on spatiotemporal aspects such as the mode of transportation used, the purpose of the visit, tourist destinations visited, and length of stay. Furthermore, the data collected was analyzed to map movement patterns, motivation, and behavior of tourist crossing border. The data obtained is analyzed descriptively and then visualized based on interview results to describe the spatial movement patterns of tourists. Semi-structured interviews were selected as the method of data collection due to its efficiency in terms of time and ease of use. In analyzing tourist movement, various techniques were considered, including questionnaires, structured interviews, GPS, mobile phone data, and system timing. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of accuracy (Dejbakhsh, 2009).

Results and Discussion

Tourist Spatiotemporal Behavior on Indonesia-Timor Leste Border

This study used semi-structured interviews to collect data from 30 tourist who had crossed Indonesian border through the Mota’ain, Wini, and Motamasin gates. The participants are divided into three groups: R1-R10, R11-R20, and R21-R30. Table 2 shows that R1-R10, R11-R20, and R21-R30 are from the Mota’ain, Wini, and Motamasin area respectively.

Table 2. Tourist Spatiotemporal Behavior on Indonesia-Timor Leste Border

R	Transport mode from RDTL	Transport mode in Indonesia	Tourist Generating Region	Tourist Destination Region and Motivation				Length of Stay (Hours)	Tourist Movement Pattern
				Primary		Secondary
				Destination Region	Motivation	Destination Region	Motivation
R1	Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Dili	Shopping Center in Atambua	Purchase gold jewelry	“Bunda Maria” Statue, Atambua	Visiting Tourist Attractions	12	Stopover
R2	Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Dili	Shopping Center in Atambua	Shopping	Sukabitetek Village	Visiting Family	4	Stopover
R3	Travel Bus	Travel Bus	Dili	Jember, East Java	Holiday	Kupang	Transit	288	Complex Neighbourhood
R4	Travel Bus	Travel Bus	Dili	Atambua	Holiday	Fulan Fehan	Holiday	48	Stopover
R5	Travel Bus	Travel Bus	Dili	Motabuik, Atambua	Visiting Family	-	-	36	Single Point
R6	Personal Car	Motorcycle (rent)	Dili	Atambua	Visiting Family	Ursuli	Shopping	48	Stopover
R7	Travel Bus	Travel Bus	Dili	Shopping Center in Kupang	Purchase Handphone and Gold Jewelry	Kelapa Lima, Kupang	Visiting Tourist Attractions	60	Destination- Region Loop
R8	Motorcycle Taxi	Motorcycle Taxi	Baucau	Motabuik and Halilulik, Atambua	Visiting Family	-	-	3	Single Point
R9	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle Taxi	Dili	Shopping Center in Atambua	Shopping	-	-	24	Single Point
R10	Travel Bus	Travel Bus	Dili	Surabaya	Visiting Family	Bali	Holiday	720	Complex Neighbourhood
R11	Personal Car	Personal Car	Oecuse	Wini	Changing Money	-	-	2	Single Point
R12	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Political Party Activities	-	-	2	Single Point
R13	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Government Service Activities	-	-	2	Single Point
R14	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Service Activities	-	-	1	Single Point
R15	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Visiting Family	-	-	1	Single Point
R16	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Work Affairs	-	-	2	Single Point
R17	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Visiting Family	-	-	1	Single Point
R18	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Work affairs	Oecusse Beach	Visiting Tourist Attractions	1	Stopover
R19	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Visiting Family	-	-	1	Single Point
R20	Personal Car	Personal Car	Dili	Oecusse	Visiting Family	-	-	1	Single Point
R21	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Suai	Atambua	Purchase Motorcycle Tools	-	-	24	Single Point
R22	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Tilomar	Betun	Visiting Family	Kupang	Holiday	24	Complex Neighbourhood
R23	Public Bus	Public Bus	Suai	Betun	Visiting Family	Betun Market	Shopping	24	Stopover
R24	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Mape	Wemasa	Visiting Family	-	-	168	Single Point
R25	Public Bus	Public Bus	Suai	Atambua	Visiting Family	-	-	48	Single Point
R26	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Suai	Betun	Shopping	-	-	36	Single Point
R27	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Suai	Kletek	Visiting Family	Motadikin Beach	Visiting Tourist Attractions	336	Stopover
R28	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Betano	Wemasa	Visiting Family	-	-	48	Single Point
R29	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Cassa	Betun	Visiting Family	-	-	36	Single Point
R30	Personal Motorcycle	Motorcycle (rent)	Cassa	Kletek	Visiting Family	-	-	24	Single Point

Note: R: Respondent, R1-R10: Respondent in Motaain, R11-R20: Respondent in Wini. R21-R30: Respondent in Motamasin.

Transportation Mode, Tourist Generating Region, and Tourist Destination Region

Table 2 shows the various modes of transportation used by tourist to cross border in Indonesia-Timor area. In the Mota'ain region, travel buses are the preferred mode of transport, whereas personal cars are commonly used in the Wini area. Private motorbikes are the most popular mode of transportation in the Motamasin region. The selection of transportation mode depends on two key factors: the distance to be covered and tourist' purpose for visiting area. For instance, tourist who enter through the Mota'ain gate often choose travel buses due to the relatively long distance they need to cover to reach the city center for shopping and vacation purposes. Those who enter through the Wini area usually use personal cars, as they are motivated by work reasons. Conversely, tourist who enter through the Motamasin gate prefer personal motorbikes since the distance to be covered is shorter, and it is more convenient to visit family and friends.

Regarding tourist-generating region, tourist who enter through the Mota'ain and Wini area primarily originate from Dili. Tourist-generating region in the Motamasin area tends to be more diverse. Notably, the Wini area stands out due to its enclave status, as depicted in Figure 1. This necessitates that visitors from Dili pass through Indonesia before reaching area. It is worth noting that tourist destination in the Mota'ain has a more extensive and varied scope compared to the Wini and Motamasin regions. Moreover, the latter two area tend to lack secondary tourist destinations. Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4 show movement of tourist from tourist-generating region to tourist destination.

Figure 3. Visualization of tourist movement through Mota'ain

Figure 2. Visualization of tourist movement through Wini

Figure 4. Visualization of tourist movement through Motamasin

Tourist Motivation and Length of Stay

This study used semi-structured interviews to explore the primary and secondary motivation of tourist crossing Indonesia-Timor Lest border. The results indicated that tourist in the Mota'ain area are generally motivated by shopping. In contrast, tourist in the Wini area have varying primary motivation, with family visits being the dominant reason, followed by work-related purposes. It is noted that only one secondary motivation was reported by tourist, such as visiting tourist attractions (R18). In the Motamasin area, the primary motivation for those crossing border is visiting family, while two tourist also expressed a shopping motivation. About three tourist reported secondary motivation (R22, R23, and R27), including vacation and shopping.

The above results highlight that tourist in each cross-border area possess unique characteristics. Notably, this study considers those with the primary motivation to visit family as engaging in tourist activities, hence, can be categorized as tourist. These results contribute to the study on cross-border tourism motivation, building on the work of Park, Musa et al. (2019) .

The majority of border crossers in Indonesia express their appreciation for the unique architecture of border buildings (as shown in Figure 5). Moreover, the cultural landscape experienced along the journey to the destination also adds to cross-border tourist's unique experience, particularly for those visiting family. For instance, R5 argues:

We enjoyed the trip from Timor Leste to Indonesia. In Indonesia, crossing buildings are also very magnificent. We rested for a meal, then took pictures in front of border building. Furthermore, we proceeded to visit family in Atambua. We saw beautiful views and traditional houses (R5).

When it comes to the length of stay, tourist who cross the Mota'ain border tend to have a longer duration of the visit. Those who opt for a more extended stay have a primary motivation to visit family members.

Figure 5. The architecture of Indonesia-Timor Leste Border Gate Building. Motamasin Gate (A), Mota'ain Gate (B), Wini Gate (C).

Source: (A). https://www.plbnmotamasin.com/2022/11/profil-plbn.html (accessed on April 10, 2023)

(B), (C). Archive photos obtained from the Mota'ain and Wini gate administrators (2023).

Tourist Movement Patterns

Table 2 shows three distinct tourist movement patterns in the Mota'ain area, including stopover, destination-region loop, single point, and complex neighborhood. Among these patterns, a stopover is the most dominant one. In the Wini area, the single point movement patterns is the most prevalent among tourist. Three tourist movement patterns including complex neighborhoods, stopovers, and single points were identified in the Motamasin area. Among these patterns, the single point is the most dominant one.

Tourist movement patterns in the Wini area is a predominantly single point, which can be attributed to the limited diversification of tourist attractions. On the other hand, in the Mota'ain area, movement patterns tend to be more diverse due to the greater distance to the destination region and the presence of various tourist attractions. The complex neighborhood movement patterns in the Motamasin area is primarily influenced by the mode of transportation used, specifically motorbikes, which make it easier for tourist to visit secondary destinations

Conclusion

Understanding tourist spatiotemporal behavior is crucial as it can provide valuable insights for stakeholders when formulating tourism development policies, particularly in border area. This study provides an overview of tourist spatiotemporal behavior, which includes movement patterns, motivation, and length of stay, transportation modes, and tourist destinations within the context of cross-border tourism along Indonesia-Timor Leste border. Furthermore, it highlights the significance of developing border area, particularly along Timor-Leste's main route. It is essential to consider the connectivity between these destinations, as most tourist visiting Indonesia have only one location in mind. Therefore, diversifying the attractions can provide visitors with more options, which can result in longer stays and increased tourism revenues.

The findings of this study showed that tourist in the three border area between Indonesia-Timor Leste exhibit distinct spatiotemporal behavior. This behavior is shaped by various factors that affect accessibility, including distance, the availability of transportation modes, and accessibility infrastructure. Internal factors, such as tourist motivation, also have a significant impact on spatiotemporal behavior. In the Wini area, the geographical position factor plays a crucial role because it is an enclave area.

This study contributes to the understanding of cross-border tourist characteristics. It shows that crossing border to visit family and work can also be considered a form of travel, depending on the circumstances. This is because border crossers often appreciate the impressive architecture of border gate and the scenic beauty along the way to their destination. The methodology used in this study has its limitations. To achieve higher accuracy, future studies are recommended to use GPS tracking to determine movement patterns and other spatiotemporal aspects. Further reviews are also expected to explore motivational links, history, identity, and relations between the two countries.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.S., B.S. and A.S.; methodology, E.S., and B.S.; investigation, E.S.; resources, E.S.; data curation, E.S.; writing—original draft preparation, E.S.; writing—review and editing, E.S and B.S.; supervision, B.S. and A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Ethics Declaration

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of the paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Universitas Gadjah Mada for supporting this research.

Funding Statement

The RTA Program Universitas Gadjah Mada provided funding for this study under Grant Number 5075/UN1.P.II/Dit-Lit/PT.01.01/2023.

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