2025 年 13 巻 4 号 p. 277-297
The COVID-19 pandemic prompted significant changes in daily life, including how people use public open spaces. While many studies have explored behavioral changes in these spaces during the pandemic, it remains unclear whether such shifts have persisted in the post-pandemic era. This study examines whether behavioral changes in public open space usage during the pandemic were temporary or lasting, using two public open spaces—Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park—in Chongqing, China. Data were collected through two questionnaire surveys and field observations conducted during and after the pandemic. Findings reveal that during the pandemic, 62.7% of users in Sanxia Square and 53.6% in Shapingba Park reported decreased usage, while only 9.5% and 14.1%, respectively, reported increased usage. Following the lifting of restrictions, visit frequency, duration, and activity levels increased significantly, indicating that most behavioral changes were temporary. However, 64.2% of respondents in Sanxia Square and 57.8% in Shapingba Park indicated they would reduce their usage again in the event of future pandemics, citing a lack of improvements in design and management. This study highlights the need for pandemic-resilient planning and design of public open spaces to ensure continued functionality under both normal and emergency conditions.
A public open space serves as a venue for individuals to meet and interact with each other (Alawi and Chu, 2024; Scruton, 1984; Widiyastuti, 2013). It facilitates chance encounters and provides an opportunity for individuals, especially from diverse backgrounds, to mingle (Banerjee, 2001). Orvell and Meikle (2009) define functional public open space as a communal amenity accommodating various activities, ranging from ceremonial and recreational to commercial uses. Walzer, as cited in Woolley (2003), describes public open space as a setting for diverse activities, including politics, religion, sports, commerce, and everyday interactions, contributing to the city's civic culture. Jacobs (1994) asserts that a city's public spaces and architectural style are essential for tourists to understand its culture, showcasing its creativity and identity. Additionally, Penalosa, as referenced by Walljasper (2005), emphasizes the importance of public open spaces, likening them to essential institutions like hospitals and schools, as they foster connectedness and facilitate social interactions across income levels, promoting a more integrated and socially healthy society. Together, these perspectives underscore the multifaceted importance of public open spaces as vibrant hubs of cultural, social, and recreational life within cities.
Building upon these foundational roles, theoretical frameworks from environmental psychology and behavioral urbanism offer deeper insights into how people engage with public open spaces, particularly under stress-inducing conditions like pandemics. Environmental psychology examines the interplay between human behavior and the physical environment, highlighting how spatial design influences perceptions of safety, comfort, and well-being (Gifford, 2014). Similarly, behavioral urbanism focuses on how urban form shapes routine social behavior, including patterns of movement, congregation, and avoidance in shared spaces (Gehl, 2011). These perspectives provide critical insights into shifts in public open space usage during periods of social disruption. Integrating such approaches supports the development of public open spaces that are not only resilient to crises but also aligned with behavioral tendencies and psychological needs. Such approaches are particularly useful for interpreting pandemic-era shifts in public space usage.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, public open spaces played critical roles in response and recovery efforts. They served as emergency healthcare centers, isolation facilities, and testing sites (Fang, Pan et al., 2020). Moreover, they offered opportunities for recreation, mood enhancement, physical activity, and stress reduction (Alawi, Chu et al., 2024; Soga, Evans et al., 2021). Conversely, limited access to public open spaces throughout the COVID-19 pandemic has been linked to detrimental impacts on mental and physical health, affecting cognitive abilities, mood disorders, academic performance, physical activity levels, contributing to weight gain (Husky, Kovess-Masfety et al., 2020; Wang, Zhang et al., 2020), and increased domestic violence (Silverio-Murillo, Balmori de la Miyar et al., 2020). Additionally, vulnerable populations, including the elderly and individuals with respiratory issues, immunodeficiency, cancer, and comorbidities, are particularly affected by the lack of access to public open spaces during such crises (Slater, Christiana et al., 2020). Collectively, the literature highlights the dual and critical role of public open spaces during pandemics, serving both functional and psychological support needs.
Notwithstanding the crucial function that public open spaces played during the pandemic, their benefits were disrupted or altered by the emergence of COVID-19. The pandemic has brought about substantial alterations to cities and urban lifestyles (El Khateeb and Shawket, 2022; Srisuwon and Anantsuksomsri, 2025; Yan and Jin, 2023), consequently affecting public open spaces. Throughout the pandemic, various measures have been implemented to accommodate safety protocols (Ledraa and Aldegheishem, 2023). Consequently, public open spaces have undergone transformation and adaptation to meet the demands of pandemic conditions (Erdönmez and Atmiş, 2021; Honey-Rosés, Anguelovski et al., 2021). Governments worldwide have implemented measures such as social distancing protocols, economic shutdowns, and home quarantines in response to this public health crisis. It is suggested that these measures may have fundamentally altered the interaction between humans and public open spaces, influencing both usage and perception.
There is considerable interest in exploring whether citizens' behaviors and perceptions of public open spaces have changed in different areas during the pandemic. Ugolini, Massetti et al. (2020) carried out a study across Europe, offering early perspectives into how individuals used and perceived public open spaces throughout the pandemic. Their study indicated a preference for easy access to public open spaces for essential activities like observing nature, exercising, and relaxing. They noted a significant behavioral shift, with an increased preference for closeness to public open spaces, especially green areas. Addas and Maghrabi (2022) investigated the effect of the pandemic on urban green spaces in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Their findings revealed a significant reduction in the usage of urban parks during the pandemic contrasted to non-pandemic phases, with fewer park visitors and reduced frequency of park use. Additionally, the primary reasons for park usage shifted during the pandemic, with a greater emphasis on socializing with relatives and friends rather than seeking mental refreshments or engaging in physical activities, as observed in non-pandemic periods. Beckmann-Wübbelt, Fricke et al. (2021) conducted a study in Karlsruhe and Rheinstetten, Germany, examining the effect of the pandemic on urban and peri-urban forests. Their results indicated an observed notable rise in visits to both urban and peri-urban forests amidst the pandemic, highlighting their importance for stress reduction and well-being among residents. Respondents preferred nearby urban and peri-urban forest locations and placed a higher value on peri-urban forests, emphasizing the significance of these green spaces for cultural ecosystem services and the health of urban populations. Da Schio, Phillips et al. (2021) carried out a study in Belgium to assess the effect of the pandemic on the usage of green spaces. Their results demonstrated increased visitation to urban green spaces amidst the pandemic, particularly among highly educated individuals. Taken together, these international studies demonstrate diverse behavioral responses to the pandemic, highlighting both reduced and increased usage depending on context, but they largely focus on behavior during—not after—the pandemic.
Recent studies have further advanced understanding of public open space usage and design in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These investigations emphasize the evolving user perceptions and preferences for urban design qualities that support safety and social interaction after the pandemic, highlighting significant shifts in public space use and expectations (Ernawati, Adhitama et al., 2024). Research in high-density and complex urban contexts reveals the critical need for pandemic-resilient strategies to support vulnerable populations, especially older adults, whose active ageing and social well-being are heavily impacted by pandemic-related restrictions (Ye, Chen et al., 2024). Moreover, recent frameworks propose pandemic-resilient urban spaces that integrate both physical and non-physical factors such as social, behavioral, and economic dimensions to enhance flexibility and resilience (Haider Kamil and Fawzi Tuma, 2025). Furthermore, digital innovations in public spaces contribute to adaptive capacity and resilience against future crises (Badel, Baeza et al., 2025). These recent contributions highlight the ongoing transformation of public open spaces—in physical design, social dynamics, and technological integration—and emphasize the pressing need to investigate whether behavioral changes are lasting adaptations or temporary responses, particularly in complex, mountainous cities like Chongqing.
However, despite the growing body of research, it remains unclear whether the behavioral changes observed in public open spaces during the pandemic have persisted into the post-pandemic era. To address this gap, the present study examines user behaviors in public open spaces during and after the pandemic, aiming to determine whether these shifts constitute temporary responses or enduring transformations. The findings contribute to current discourse by offering insights into the design and management of public open spaces that are responsive to user needs in both routine and emergency contexts.
A case study is conducted in two public open spaces— Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park—in Chongqing, China. The investigation periods are divided into the pandemic period, spanning from the beginning of 2020 to the end of 2022, and the post-pandemic period, which includes the period after January 2023, based on official announcements from Chinese authorities. This study first examines the pandemic's impact on user behavior and then investigates whether these changes are temporary or permanent.
The remainder of this study is organized as follows: The second section outlines the study methodology, comprising three parts. The first part discusses the research design, followed by an overview of the study's location and context in the second part, and an explanation of the research process in the third part.
The third section presents the results and discussion of the study, divided into five parts. The first part investigates the effect of the pandemic on the behavior of public open space users. The second part discusses the effect of the complete reopening on the behavior of users of public open spaces, while the third part identifies the reasons that affected the behavior of users during the pandemic. The fourth part of this section discusses the expected effects of future pandemic waves on users' behaviors in present public open spaces, while the fifth part explores the need to improve public open space responses to better fulfill users’ needs during pandemics.
Finally, the fourth section includes the study's conclusions, implications, limitations, and suggestions for future studies.
A case study is conducted to determine the study's aims. Case studies involve a comprehensive examination of a limited number of conditions or events and their interactions within a real-life context to explore contemporary phenomena. Yin (2009) defines case study research as an empirical investigation that explores a phenomenon within its authentic context, employing various sources of evidence when the distinctions between the phenomenon and context are unclear. The use of case studies offers several advantages. Firstly, data analysis occurs within the context of its usage (Yin, 1984), unlike experiments that often isolate phenomena from their contexts (Zainal, 2003). Secondly, the diverse methods of case studies allow for both qualitative and quantitative analyses of data. Thirdly, the detailed descriptions provided by case studies facilitate the exploration, description, and explanation of real-life complexities not captured by other approaches.
The first step in case study research involves identifying the research inquiries (Yin, 2009). This study pursued the following research inquiries: What is the pandemic's effect on user behavior in public open spaces? How has user behavior in public open spaces changed following the pandemic? What are the expectations for user behavior in public open spaces in potential future pandemics?
Following this, the second step involves establishing the structure of the research design. This step includes two questionnaire surveys and field observations. The first questionnaire aims to assess the effect of the pandemic emergence on the behavior of public open space users. The second questionnaire aims to examine the effect of the complete reopening announcement on the behavior of public open space users. A comparative analysis of the results from both questionnaires is conducted to determine whether the shifts in user behavior during the pandemic are temporary or permanent. Field observations complement the questionnaire surveys. They aim to directly observe the public spaces and understand their features, as well as observe the interaction of people with them to comprehend and interpret the responses to the questionnaire. Additionally, it ensures that the users are engaging in the behaviors they reported in the questionnaire responses. The questionnaire and observations are conducted in two public open spaces: Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park (Figure 1).
The study was conducted in Chongqing City, situated in the southwest region of China. Known as the "mountain city" due to its distinctive geography, Chongqing boasts mountainous terrain covering 76% of its land area, spanning 82,400 km2. Elevations in Chongqing vary from 168 to 400 meters above sea level (Cai, Fan et al., 2021). By 2020, the city's permanent population had reached 31,243,200 (Statistics, C. M. B. o., 2021), marking an increase of 225,300 from the previous year. Additionally, the urbanization rate among permanent residents stands at 66.8% (Cai, Fan et al., 2021).
The two selected public open spaces, Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park, are situated in the heart of the Shapingba district (Figure 2), one of the main urban areas of Chongqing. The population density in the vicinity of these studied public open spaces is approximately 27,324 people per square kilometer (Statistics, S. D. B. o., 2021). Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park are conveniently located near Chongqing metro and bus stops, making them easily accessible to the public. Their visual and physical connectivity via sidewalks and open pathways from all directions, especially Sanxia Square, further enhances their accessibility for pedestrians.
Sanxia Square stands out for its proximity to various amenities, including hotels, food and coffee shops, shopping centers, and banks. It offers areas for walking, sitting with scenic views, and spaces for children's play. Additionally, it provides spaces for activities such as dancing for elderly people and temporary shops. Meanwhile, Shapingba Park, characterized by its dense tree cover, offers complete tranquility, making it an ideal spot for relaxation and enjoying nature. It also features snacks and coffee shops and areas for activities like walking, running, and dancing for elderly people (Figure 3).
The selection of Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park was based on three main criteria: (1) Functionality and diversity of use: the two spaces represent different types of public open spaces (square and park) and offer a wide range of daily and leisure activities; (2) High user density: both sites are located in a densely populated urban area with high foot traffic and social interaction potential; (3) Well-known status: Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park are among the most well-known and frequently visited public open spaces in the Shapingba district, making them suitable for capturing diverse user behaviors and spatial responses during public health emergencies.
Research processThe study investigation is based on two main methods: questionnaire surveys and field observations. Two questionnaire surveys were carried out for this study (Table 1). The first survey was distributed during the pandemic period when users could access public open spaces while adhering to pandemic protocols. It was distributed in the selected public open spaces between February and June 2022. The second questionnaire survey was distributed subsequent to the complete lifting of all restrictions related to the pandemic and the announcement of China's full reopening. It was distributed between April and June 2023.
In the first questionnaire (during the pandemic period), 672 valid questionnaire samples were collected from the targeted public open spaces: 338 samples from Sanxia Square and 334 samples from Shapingba Park. In the second questionnaire (after the reopening announcement), 702 valid questionnaire samples were collected from the targeted public open spaces: 362 samples from Sanxia Square and 340 samples from Shapingba Park (Table 2).
Both surveys were conducted using a self-administered paper-based format, distributed on-site in the selected public spaces. A non-probability convenience sampling method was adopted, where participants were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate during each survey period. Given the nature of public space usage and the absence of a sampling frame, convenience sampling was the most practical and context-appropriate method for capturing a range of user experiences in the selected spaces during the two time periods. The samples from the pandemic and post-pandemic phases were independent; that is, the same individuals were not necessarily included in both periods. To protect respondent privacy, no personal identifiers such as names or contact information were collected. As a result, it was not possible to follow up with or re-identify the same participants across the two time periods. Moreover, the study was not designed as a longitudinal analysis but rather aimed to capture general user perceptions and behaviors during two distinct phases. Nonetheless, the use of convenience sampling and independent samples is acknowledged as a limitation, as it may not fully reflect temporal changes in the behavior of individual users.
Field observations were conducted by a trained observer during both study periods (during and after the pandemic). Observations took place on various days, including weekdays and weekends, to capture a representative range of public space usage patterns. During site visits, detailed field notes were recorded to document patterns of space use, environmental features, and user behaviors. These notes were guided by the study’s focus on public open space activities and conditions but were not collected using a rigid or formalized template, allowing flexibility to capture contextual nuances.
During observations, roles varied between a complete observer—where no interaction with users took place to avoid influencing their behavior—and, occasionally, a participant observer engaging in daily activities to assess the suitability of public open space services. Multiple senses were employed to gather comprehensive information about spatial features and user activities (Adler, 1994). Cameras were also used to document user behavior, enhancing the thoroughness and accuracy of observations (Collier and Collier, 1986).
These observations served as a supplementary method to provide contextual insights into spatial usage and environmental conditions. These observations were not analyzed independently, but rather supported the interpretation of questionnaire findings. Data gathered from observations were compared with survey responses to validate user perceptions and detect any discrepancies between reported experiences and actual spatial conditions. This triangulation approach enhanced the reliability and depth of the research findings.
| Questionnaire | Question |
|---|---|
| Questionnaire 1 (During the pandemic) | 1. "Personal information: age and gender." |
| 2. "Evaluate your use of this public open space during the pandemic compared to the period before the emergence of the pandemic, including the number of weekly visits, duration spent in public open space during your visit, and the actions performed in the public open space. (The use of the public open space increased during the pandemic) (The use of the public open space decreased during the pandemic) (The use of the public open space during the pandemic is similar to the before the pandemic period) (I don't know)." | |
| 3. "How many times do you usually visit the public open space per week? (0 times) (1-2 times) (3-6 times) (7 or more times)." | |
| 4. "How long do you usually spend in the public open space when you visit? (Less than 1 hour) (1-3 hours) (4-5 hours) (More than 5 hours)." | |
| 5. "What kind of activities do you usually do in the public open space? (Relaxing, strolling, and getting fresh air) (Doing physical exercise) (Taking kids around in the public open space) (Enjoying nature) (Meeting with friends) (Others). Multi-choice question." | |
| 6. "What are the challenges that may affect your use of public open space during the pandemic? (Absence of social distancing in public open space) (Crowding in public open space) (Public open space far from home) (The fear of infection on the road to public open space) (Public open space does not provide me with my needs during the pandemic) (Other). Multi-choice question." | |
| Questionnaire 2 (After the reopening) | 1. "Personal information: age and gender." |
| 2. "How many times do you usually visit the public open space per week? (0 times) (1-2 times) (3-6 times) (7 or more times)." | |
| 3. "How long do you usually spend in the public open space when you visit? (Less than 1 hour) (1-3 hours) (4-5 hours) (More than 5 hours)." | |
| 4. "What kind of activities do you usually do in the public open space? (Relaxing, strolling, and getting fresh air) (Doing physical exercise) (Taking kids around in the public open space) (Enjoying nature) (Meeting with friends) (Others)." | |
| 5. "Have you noticed any changes in the public open space arrangement after the reopening announcement? (Yes) (No) (I don't know)." | |
| 6. "Based on the current conditions of the public open space, how will your utilization of the public open spaces change in case of future similar pandemics, even if there is no complete closure of these spaces? (The use of the public open space will increase) (The use of the public open space will decrease) (The use of the public open space will stay the same) (I don't know)." |
| Period | Public open space | Total samples | Gender | Age | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Option | Percentage | Option | Percentage | |||
| During the pandemic | Sanxia Square | 338 | Male | 43 | 18-30 | 55.0 |
| 31-45 | 22.9 | |||||
| Female | 57 | 46-60 | 13.8 | |||
| > 60 | 8.3 | |||||
| Shapingba Park | 334 | Male | 46 | 18-30 | 62.0 | |
| 31-45 | 22.2 | |||||
| Female | 54 | 46-60 | 9.3 | |||
| > 60 | 6.5 | |||||
| After the reopening | Sanxia Square | 362 | Male | 41 | 18-30 | 63.7 |
| 31-45 | 14.9 | |||||
| Female | 59 | 46-60 | 12.6 | |||
| > 60 | 8.8 | |||||
| Shapingba Park | 340 | Male | 48 | 18-30 | 58.4 | |
| 31-45 | 24.7 | |||||
| Female | 52 | 46-60 | 11.3 | |||
| > 60 | 5.6 | |||||
The assessment of the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the behaviors of users of public open spaces indicates a decrease in usage throughout the pandemic contrasted to the pre-pandemic phase (Figure 4). In Sanxia Square, users were surveyed regarding their use of the square during the pandemic relative to before the outbreak. The majority of participants reported a decrease in usage, with 212 participants indicating a decrease. Conversely, 32 participants reported an increase, while 74 participants stated that their usage remained similar to the period before the pandemic. Additionally, 20 participants expressed uncertainty about the comparison.
Similarly, in Shapingba Park, results showed that 179 participants reported a decrease in usage, while 47 reported an increase. Additionally, 96 participants indicated that their usage remained the same, with 12 expressing uncertainty about the comparison. These findings align with several previous studies indicating a decline in the utilization of public open spaces throughout the COVID-19 pandemic phase despite the easing of restrictions allowing visits to such spaces (Addas and Maghrabi, 2022; Nelson Grima , Corinne Hill-James et al., 2020; Xie, Luo et al., 2020). Subsequent parts will analyze the extent to which this effect persists after the end of the pandemic.
The analysis of users' visits to Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park (Figure 5) indicates a noticeable shift in visitation patterns to public open spaces between the pandemic phase and the time following the full reopening announcement. During the pandemic, the largest proportion of users visited the public open space once or twice a week. Conversely, the number of users who visited public spaces 3-6 times or 7 times or more was minimal. Following the full reopening announcement and the lifting of restrictions, there was a notable increase in how often users visited public open spaces. Specifically, there was a rise in the count of users visiting public open spaces 3-6 times a week and 7 times or more. Meanwhile, there was a reduction in the count of users visiting public open spaces 1-2 times or once in more than a week. These results confirm that the decrease in visits to public open spaces throughout the pandemic was temporary, as visitation increased once the pandemic was overcome and related restrictions were lifted.
The analysis of the time spent by users in Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park (Figure 6) reveals shifts in their duration of stay post-pandemic contrasted to during the pandemic. During the pandemic, the majority of users reported staying in the public open space for less than one hour, followed by a duration of 2-3 hours, with very few or no users staying for 4 hours or more. However, following the announcement of full reopening and the lifting of pandemic restrictions, there was a rise in the duration spent by visitors in public open spaces. The findings show a rise in the count of users spending an hour or more in the public open space, including 1-3 hours, 4-5 hours, and more than 5 hours, contrasted to the pandemic phase, while the proportion of users staying for less than an hour decreased.
These findings confirm that the reduction in duration spent by visitors in public open spaces amidst the pandemic was temporary and correlated with the pandemic's presence. As soon as the pandemic was declared over and all related restrictions were lifted, there was a rise in the duration spent by visitors in public open spaces, signaling a return to normalcy.
The analysis of activities engaged by users in the studied public open spaces (Figure 7) indicates shifts in user behavior post-pandemic contrasted to during the pandemic phase. Findings demonstrate an overall rise in activities engaged by visitors to public open spaces after the pandemic across all aspects studied. Notably, there was a significant decrease in two activities—meeting friends and taking kids around in the public open space— throughout the pandemic, which contrasted with the post-pandemic phase.
This decline can be attributed to the preventive measures implemented to curb the spread of the pandemic and safeguard against infection. These findings corroborate those of the preceding two parts, indicating that the changes observed in user behavior during the pandemic were temporary and directly linked to the pandemic itself. As the pandemic concluded and life returned to normalcy, public open spaces experienced an increase in the activities performed by visitors.
The findings of the analysis on the reasons behind the shift in behavior among users of Sanxia Square and Shapingba Park during the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 8) reveal several key factors influencing their decision-making process. The absence of social distancing in public open spaces emerged as the primary factor affecting user behavior, with 240 respondents from Sanxia Square and 182 from Shapingba Park highlighting this concern. Crowding ranked as the second most cited factor by respondents in Sanxia Square, with 210 respondents identifying it as a significant reason for behavior change during the pandemic, while 97 respondents from Shapingba Park echoed similar sentiments regarding crowding.
The fear of contracting infection while commuting from home to public open spaces emerged as the second main factor for respondents in Shapingba Park and the third for Sanxia Square, with 147 respondents from Shapingba Park and 143 from Sanxia Square expressing this concern. This fear stemmed from dissatisfaction with the walking and cycling paths that link users' residences to public open spaces, particularly in the mountainous terrain of the Shapingba region and Chongqing in general. These paths often failed to meet infection prevention standards during the pandemic due to their narrowness and shared usage between walking and cycling. In addition, the very complicated topography of some areas makes cycling impractical.
Additionally, visitors to public open spaces were afraid of using public transportation during the pandemic due to the heightened risk of infection. Another contributing factor to the behavioral shift among public open space users during the pandemic was the inability of these spaces to meet users' daily needs, given the requirements for social distancing and avoidance of surface contact to prevent infection. This concern was noted by 123 respondents from Sanxia Square and 107 from Shapingba Park. Furthermore, the distance between public open spaces and users' homes played a role, with 111 respondents from Shapingba Park and 89 from Sanxia Square citing it as a factor. Some users traveled from distant neighborhoods due to disparities in the distribution of public spaces and their amenities across different regions.
These findings reveal that users’ behavioral shifts during the pandemic were not only driven by imposed regulations or surface-level spatial conditions but also by more complex mechanisms and motivations. Fear of infection, perceived vulnerability, dissatisfaction with public infrastructure (such as narrow or poorly maintained paths), and unequal access to quality open spaces collectively influenced decisions. In particular, risk perception, influenced by both individual health concerns and trust (or distrust) in public safety measures, played a critical role. Moreover, behavioral responses appeared to be spatially and socially conditioned by the city's topography, mobility systems, and the unequal distribution of accessible, well-managed public open spaces. These multifaceted factors highlight that public space use during health crises is shaped not merely by space availability, but by how users perceive, trust, and interact with urban systems in times of crisis.
These survey findings were further validated by field observations conducted during the study period. The observational data confirmed several reported issues, including crowding, limited opportunities for physical distancing, and spatial challenges specific to the two studied public spaces. For instance, concerns about the lack of social distancing and overcrowding were clearly evident on-site. Moreover, the narrow and shared walking and cycling paths connecting users’ homes to these spaces—particularly in the mountainous terrain of Shapingba and broader Chongqing—were observed to be inadequate for safe and comfortable commuting during the pandemic. These conditions contributed to users' fears of infection and limited the use of public spaces. The consistency between the spatial conditions observed and users’ reported experiences strengthens the validity and reliability of the behavioral insights discussed in this section.
Expected impact of future pandemic waves on the users' behavior in existing public open spacesThe analysis of the potential effects of future pandemics on the users' behavior in public open spaces in their current state indicates a likelihood of a return to a situation similar to that experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. Most study participants reported that there have been no changes or adjustments made to the studied public open spaces to facilitate effective utilization in the event of future pandemics (Figure 9). This sentiment was shared by 295 respondents from Sanxia Square and 304 respondents from Shapingba Park. Conversely, 31 respondents from Sanxia Square and 27 from Shapingba Park noted some changes. These changes are minor and include aspects such as increasing surveillance levels and the availability of technologies to identify individuals infected with the pandemic. However, there have been no significant changes at the planning, design, or management levels of these public open spaces.
Consequently, the majority of respondents expressed an intention to reduce their usage of public open spaces in their current state in the event of future similar pandemics (Figure 10). In Sanxia Square, 217 participants indicated their intention to reduce usage, while 28 expressed a desire to increase usage. Additionally, 91 participants expected to maintain the same level of usage, while 26 participants were uncertain about their usage of the Square in the event of future pandemics. Similarly, in Shapingba Park, 193 participants expressed intentions to reduce usage, while 39 planned to increase usage. Additionally, 87 participants expected to maintain the same level of usage, while 21 participants were uncertain about their usage of the park in the event of future pandemics.
The results of this study indicate a shift in the behavior of users of public open spaces throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Users reduced their visits, actions, and duration spent in public open spaces throughout the pandemic. Still, once pandemic-related restrictions were lifted and life returned to normal, the rate of visits, activities, and time spent by users increased. However, the study suggests that the utilization of public open spaces may decline in the event of new, similar pandemics. Therefore, this study calls for solutions to improve the response of public open spaces to pandemics and maintain their effective functions in meeting the requirements of users, regardless of circumstances, whether in normal cases or in times of pandemics.
In this regard, this study advocates for incorporating resilience to pandemics when planning and designing public open spaces. Resilience encompasses various interpretations in academic discourse, depending on the specific aspect or field under investigation (Alawneh and Rashid, 2022; Mengistu, Gebremariam et al., 2022; Ribeiro and Gonçalves, 2019; SHARIFI, 2023). The concept of resilience to a pandemic disaster can be defined as the urban environment's capacity to withstand shocks without experiencing substantial structural or functional changes (Zhou, Su et al., 2020). In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the necessity of disaster resilience in cities (Sharifi, 2020). The idea of a "disaster-resilient city" has garnered momentum and is more frequently referenced in institutional policy documents and research on disaster management (Alawi, Chu et al., 2023).
Within this context, urban planning and design are identified as key contributors to establishing disaster-resilient cities and mitigating the adverse effects of disasters, thus enhancing community resilience by integrating multidimensional features that reduce disaster impacts. Numerous recent studies have highlighted this significance (Covatta and Ikalović, 2022; Hossain, 2014; Villagra-Islas and Alves, 2016). Furthermore, global agreements like the "Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015)" (UNISDR, 2015), the "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015)" (Nations, 2015), and the "Hyogo Framework for Action (2005)" (UNISDR, 2005) have emphasized the importance of incorporating resilience-building and disaster risk reduction into the planning and design processes.
Given the unpredictability of future global health crises beyond COVID-19, this study urges urban planners, architects, engineers, and authorities to intensify efforts to bolster cities' resilience to pandemics. It is critical to prioritize the establishment of cities that can withstand the effects of pandemics. This involves conducting additional research to assess urban areas' resilience to pandemic outbreaks, improving governance, and integrating principles and strategies of physical design and planning into urban development. The study highlights the need to develop guidelines for pandemic resilience to be integrated into public open spaces planning and design, along with practical evaluations of pandemic resilience in these areas.
While this study primarily focuses on spatial and physical aspects of public open spaces, it acknowledges that pandemic resilience in such environments is influenced by both design-related and external factors. The type of urban resilience addressed here emphasizes the adaptive capacity of public space design—such as spatial configuration, accessibility, multifunctionality, and flexibility of use—to enable safe and sustained public engagement during health crises. Nonetheless, it is recognized that broader systemic factors like government-imposed restrictions, public transport limitations, and enforcement policies also play significant roles in shaping public space usage. Although these external influences fall beyond the design scope of this study, their indirect impact is acknowledged. Furthermore, when contextualized within global trends, the emphasis on enhancing design-based resilience is consistent with growing international calls for pandemic-ready urban environments—particularly in dense cities where outdoor spaces serve as critical social and psychological outlets during crises. By focusing on design and spatial planning, this study offers insights that complement broader resilience strategies and contribute to a global understanding of adaptable public spaces.
This study aimed to investigate whether the changes in user behavior in public open spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic were temporary or permanent. During the pandemic, there was a significant decline in the frequency of visits, duration of stay, and types of activities conducted in public open spaces. These changes were largely driven by concerns related to crowding, lack of social distancing, and fear of infection during commutes and while using public amenities.
After the pandemic, most behavioral patterns reverted to pre-pandemic levels once restrictions were lifted. Users resumed visiting public open spaces more frequently, staying longer, and engaging in a wider range of activities. This indicates that the behavioral shifts during the pandemic were temporary, not permanent. However, the findings also suggest that users would again reduce their use of public open spaces if similar pandemics were to occur, especially since no major design or management changes have been implemented in the studied spaces to improve safety or resilience.
ImplicationsThe study findings have important implications for urban planners and designers, as they underscore the need to integrate health-responsive features into the planning and design of public open spaces and adopt supportive management strategies. Enhancing spatial configurations, hygiene infrastructure, and incorporating flexible and adaptable design elements will be essential to ensure public open spaces remain accessible and safe in future health crises. Failing to do so may lead to renewed avoidance behaviors in similar emergencies.
Limitations and future workWhile the study provides valuable insights, it has certain limitations. It was conducted in only two public open spaces in Chongqing, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other urban contexts. Moreover, a convenience sampling method was used, and the samples from the two time periods were independent. As a result, the findings reflect the perspectives of a specific group of respondents at each phase and may not fully capture temporal changes in individual behavior.
Future research should expand the geographic scope to include diverse urban settings and public space typologies. Additionally, studies should focus on developing, implementing, and evaluating planning and design strategies aimed at improving pandemic resilience. This includes providing sufficient spatial flexibility for physical distancing, enhancing circulation paths, and integrating adaptable infrastructure such as modular seating and touch-free facilities. Management strategies such as clear signage, regular maintenance, and effective public communication will also be crucial in supporting the safe use of these spaces during future health emergencies.
Conceptualization, M.A. and D.C.; methodology, M.A. and D.C.; software, M.A.; investigation, M.A.; data curation, M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.; writing—review and editing, M.A. and D.C.; supervision, D.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of the paper.
