Second Language Learning Strategies (I)

Abstract

Recent increased attention to the learner and to the learner-centered communicative approach to classroom teaching has led to the tremendous growth of learning strategy research in the past few years. Learning strategies are processes, procedures, or steps taken by the learner that can facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and utilization of information (Schmeck, 1988;Weinstein, 1988). Two major learning strategy classification systems have been described in this article. O'Malley & Chamot's (1990) system classifies strategies into three broad categories: (a) meta- cognitive strategies (i.e., planning, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, self-monitoring, problem identification, and self-evaluation), (b) cognitive strategies (i.e., repetition, resourcing, grouping, note-taking, deduction/induction, substitution, elaboration, summarization, translation, transfer, and inferencing),and (c) social and affective strategies (i.e., questioning, cooperation; self-talk, and self-reinforcement). Oxford's (1990) system, on the other hand, classifies strategies into direct strategies (i.e., those behaviors involving direct use of the language) and indirect strategies (i.e., those behaviors which support language learning although they do not directly involve using the language). Included in direct strategies are memory strategies for entering information into memory and retrieving it, cognitive strategies for manipulating the language for reception and production of meaning, and compensation strategies for overcoming limitations in existing knowledge. Included in indirect strategies are metacognitive strategies for organizing and evaluating meaning, affective strategies for managing emotions and attitudes, and social strategies for learning with others. Major introspective research methods which have been employed to assess second language learners' strategies are questionnaires, interviews, diaries, and think-aloud procedures. It is important that researchers use multiple techniques (e.g., combining thinking-aloud with interviews) to compensate for the problems inherent in each method and to obtain more accurate, valid data on learners' strategic processing (Matsumoto, 1993, 1994).