In order to understand listening comprehension at intermediate-advanced level, learners of Japanese need to be able to guess the meaning of words and other unknown items from the context in a topdown fashion. As a test of their ability to do this, dictations were given to intermediate-advanced learners of Japanese. They were encouraged to use dictionaries and could listen to the text as often as they wished. A comparison of high-difficulty vocabulary items with expected L1 strategies revealed that vocabulary items.
