Introduction of Edible Bamboo Insect Food Culture and Its Background in the Mountain Area of Yunnan, China and Mainland Southeast Asia

Abstract

Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, has received significant attention in recent years. Edible bamboo insects, including the bamboo worm (Omphisa fuscidentalis) and bamboo weevil (Cyrtotrachelus spp.), are unique resources that are widespread in Yunnan, China and mainland Southeast Asia. These insects are commonly harvested by certain ethnic groups from bamboo forests on the basis of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), and their preparation methods vary across cultures. While bamboo worms are certainly a minor resource, they are part of the diverse uses of bamboo in the region. Understanding the dynamics of bamboo use may provide valuable insights into the distinctive culture that the region has to offer. However, information from research on these insects is still limited. This paper discusses and summarizes current research on edible bamboo insects, including their distribution, ecology, the local communities harvesting bamboo insects, harvesting processes, cooking methods, market sales, nutrient composition, medicinal value, and their role in local livelihoods. Bamboo insects enrich local dishes and represent an important aspect of the region’s food culture. They provide valuable sources of protein, minerals, and healthy fats and are also used in traditional medicine. Furthermore, the collection of bamboo insects provides a source of income for local residents. In addition, this study provides a slight discussion on why minor resource use, the use of bamboo insects, remains and points to the need for a multifaceted value assessment. This paper seeks to integrate current research findings on bamboo insects from multiple perspectives to enhance our understanding of bamboo insect food culture in Yunnan and Southeast Asia, which will provide a foundation for future studies for the conservation of minor resources and local culture.

1. Introduction

Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, has received global attention in recent years [1, 2, 3, 4]. This practice highlights a distinctive human-insect relationship, in which insects are utilized as food resources [4, 5, 6].

Insects play an important role in the cultural traditions of various regions and ethnic groups [2, 7]. The mountain areas of Yunnan, China and mainland Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam [8], are particularly notable for their biodiversity and rich entomophagous traditions [9]. Studying insect consumption in these regions could provide valuable insights into the intricate relationship between humans and insects [5].

Entomophagy, as part of sustaining food and livelihood systems in rural areas through the utilization of peripheral natural resources, also serves as a pathway for exploring the relationship between local communities and their environment [5]. Peripheral resources are additional resources obtained during primary livelihood activities, which can augment income, enrich diets, or provide medicinal benefits [2, 5, 10]. For example, the bamboo worm is harvested when bamboo is cut for agricultural purposes.

In the agroecosystems of Southeast Asia, bamboo is commonly found in mountainous or hilly areas near rural villages [11, 12]. Because of its affordability and versatility, bamboo is a vital plant resource for local farmers; it also serves as a significant source of income among Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) [12, 13]. More than 800 insect species have been documented to feed on bamboo in Asian countries [14]. Some insects inhabit live bamboo shoots and culms, and local people gather them from bamboo forests for consumption [9, 11, 15]. In Southeast Asia, there are two common edible bamboo insects: the bamboo worm (Omphisa fuscidentalis) and bamboo weevil (Cyrtotrachelus spp.). These insects are popular among certain ethnic groups [11, 16]. Local traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is utilized to collect and consume edible bamboo insects, and the practices employed vary among cultures. Understanding the food culture associated with these insects deepens our understanding of local ecological knowledge and the relationship between people and their environment. However, research on the food culture of edible bamboo insects remains limited and lacks integration across countries and ethnic groups.

Furthermore, studies on the persistence of supplementary livelihood activities, such as bamboo insect collection, and their contributions to local economies are scarce. Bamboo insects have less economic value compared to other recent commercial crops. Exploring the reasons why bamboo worms are collected in the mountainous areas of Yunnan and Southeast Asia is an important issue, as it will help us to understand the reasons why a minor resource is remaining in the future and how to preserve the local culture. Most studies have focused on the economic significance of natural resources for local livelihoods rather than their cultural significance. They also emphasize the independent values of natural resources over their values in conjunction with other resources and the surrounding environmental support systems. This leads to a lack of holistic evaluation. This paper aims to discuss and summarize current research findings on bamboo insects from various perspectives to enhance our understanding of bamboo insect food culture in Yunnan and Southeast Asia and aid future research for the conservation of minor resources and local culture.

2. Distribution and ecological aspects of edible bamboo insects

2.1 Bamboo Worm

Omphisa fuscidentalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is the bamboo worm species that occurs in the mountainous regions of Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia [17, 18, 19, 20]. It is commonly referred to as the bamboo caterpillar by local people [16, 18] (Table 1). It is distributed across Southeast Asia, notably in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and southern Yunnan, China [21, 22, 23]. The bamboo worm predominantly hosts bamboo species belonging to the genera Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Phyllostachys, and Thyrsostachys (Table 1).

Table 1: Edible bamboo insects and their host bamboo species.

Species	Family	Common name	Host bamboo species	References
Omphisa fuscidentalis	Pyralidae	Bamboo worm, bamboo caterpillar.	Bambusa blumeana，B. nutans, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. membranaceus, Gigantochloa albociliata.	[17]
			Bambusa bambos, B. blumeana, B. nutans, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, D. brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. sericeus, Gigantochloa levis.	[19]
			Bambusa arundinacea, B. nutans, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, D. brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. membranaceus, D. strictus, Gigantochloa nigrociliata, Thyrsostachys siamensis.	[24]
			Bambusa oldhamii, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. latiflorus, D. membranaceus, D. sinicus, Phyllostachys nigra.	[25]
Cyrtotrachelus buqueti	Curculionidae	Bamboo weevil, bamboo shoot borer, bamboo snout beetles.	Bambusa chungii, B. textilis, Sinocalamus affinis.	[26]
			Bambusa textilis, Neosinocalamus affinis.	[27]
			Bambusa emeiensis, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. latiflorus, Phyllostachys sulphurea.	[28]
			Bambusa pervariabilis × Dendrocalamus daii, Neosinocalamus affinis.	[29]
			Bambusa multiplex, Neosinocalamus affinis, Oligostachyum lubricum, Phyllostachys sulphurea.	[30]
			Bambusa pervariabilis, B. textilis, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Indosasa suavis, Phyllostachys elegans, Pseudosasa amabilis.	[31]
Cyrtotrachelus dux	Curculionidae	Bamboo weevil, bamboo shoot borer, bamboo snout beetles.	Dendrocalamus hamiltoni, D. strictus, Melocannna baccifera.	[32, 33]
			Bambusa tulda.	[34, 35]
Cyrtotrachelus longimanus	Curculionidae	Bamboo weevil, bamboo shoot borer, bamboo snout beetles.	Bambusa textilis.	[36, 37]
			Dendrocalamus strictus, Meloccana baccifera.	[38]

The bamboo worm has an annual life cycle [18, 39, 40]. In mainland Southeast Asia, the rainy season runs from May to October, and most bamboo shoots are observed during this time 17, 41. The adult moths lay egg clusters on newly sprouted bamboo shoots in early August [17, 39]. The larvae bore a hole in the bamboo shoots and migrate between internodes, feeding on the fresh inner pulp [11, 19, 40]. By mid-September, mature larvae enter diapause and move to the internode near their entry hole, where they pupate the following June [19, 24]. Adults eclose within the internode, and the moths escape from the entrance hole [11, 17]. However, some researchers, such as Mo and Zhan [42], suggest that the moths fly out from a new exit hole.

2.2 Bamboo weevil

Cyrtotrachelus spp. belong to the order Coleoptera and the family Curculionidae [14, 33]. Cyrtotrachelus spp. are widely distributed across East Asia, including Japan and Southern China, South Asia, including Bangladesh, India, Nepal, the Andaman Islands, and Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam [33, 43]. These weevils primarily target monocotyledons, especially bamboo [37, 43], and they are commonly referred to as the bamboo weevil or bamboo snout beetle [44, 45] (Table 1). Additionally, these weevils predominantly host specific genera, including Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Meloccana, Neosinocalamus, Oligostachyum, Phyllostachys, Pseudosasa, and Sinocalamus (Table 1), which are notable pests of bamboo forests [14, 33].

Table 2 shows the bamboo weevil species found in the mountain areas of Southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. Of these species, C. buqueti [46, 47], C. dux [48, 49], and C. longimanus [11, 16] have been reported as edible bamboo insects (Table 1; Table 2). Furthermore, according to Sin et al. [43], C. thompsoni is considered synonymous with C. longimanus. The three edible bamboo weevil species have similar life history stages. All of them follow an annual life cycle and become active with the onset of the rainy season [14, 33].

Table 2: The record of bamboo weevil (Cyrtotrachelus spp.) in Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Country	Species of cyrtotrachelus	References
Cambodia	C. dichrous	[50]
	C. rufopectinipes	[43]
	C. thompsoni*, **	[51]
China	C. buqueti**	[27, 43]
	C. dux**	[33]
	C. longimanus**	[37, 52]
	C. rufopectinipes	[51]
Laos	C. longimanus**	[11]
Myanmar	C. dux**	[33]
	C. rufopectinipes	[50, 51]
Thailand	C. dichrous	[53]
	C. dux**	[53]
	C. longipes	[33, 53]
Vietnam	C. rufopectinipes	[51]
	C. thompsoni*, **	[50, 54]

Note: *C. thompsoni is considered a synonym of C. longimanus. ** are edible species.

The adult female C. longimanus lays eggs in a “head downward” posture on growing shoots [55], with the eggs deposited in pits resembling those made for feeding purposes [33]. Once the eggs hatch [56], the larvae bore into the culm [33], inhabiting its interior and moving vertically upward while feeding [56]. Later, when fully grown, the larvae exit the culm to pupate in the soil [54], where they overwinter [14]. During the following rainy season, the adults crawl out from the soil [57], climb onto bamboo shoots, and begin feeding by creating bite-deep holes to obtain the sap [58]. Mating commences two days after adults acquire sufficient nutrition [33].

3. Food culture of edible bamboo insects

Insect food culture (including edible bamboo insects) refers to the traditions, customs, and practices of specific communities or ethnic groups that involve the collection, preparation, and consumption of insects sourced from the environment [5, 59].

3.1 Different harvesting sources and locations for mountain and mountain foot communities

The mountain areas of Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia are home to various ethnic groups, which are classified into five major language families: Mon-Khmer, Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Yao, Chinese, and Tibeto-Burman [60, 61]. Bamboo forests are predominantly found at altitudes up to 1,200 m [62], with Sino-Tibetan groups typically residing between 1,000 and 1,500 m, Mon-Khmer groups in hilly areas around 800 to 1,000 m, and Tai-speaking groups living below 800 m, particularly along the Mekong River and its tributary valleys [61]. From the observations experiences of field survey by authors, the Tai and Mon-Khmer groups tend to gather and consume bamboo insects within their respective habitats.

Agricultural activities in these mountain areas are crucial for local livelihoods [8, 61]. Two main traditional agricultural activities are performed in this area: swidden agriculture, which involves the cultivation of upland crops such as upland rice, maize, and beans in hilly or mountainous regions, and paddy rice cultivation in lowland areas or valley bottoms [61, 63, 64].

In highland areas, which are mainly inhabited by Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, such as the Khmu people, they have taken advantage of the many forest products that exist in the fallow areas [61]. Bamboo is dominant in fallow forests, and various products coexisting with bamboo are used. Bamboo insects are one of those many products. They are collected from bamboo forests as well as from bamboo forests near their villages. In contrast, in valleys and lowlands, Tai-speaking groups, such as the Tai people, have historically cultivated paddy rice [61], primarily using the cultivated bamboo for their daily needs. Bamboo insects grow mainly in the cultivated bamboos, and Tai people collect them and occasionally from nearby mountains.

3.2 Harvesting of edible bamboo insects

Local residents collect edible bamboo insects during the harvesting season in their spare time utilizing their ecological knowledge of the insects [1, 65].

Harvesting has several steps, including visual identification, cutting, gathering, and storage. Below, detailed information on the harvesting processes of edible bamboo insects is provided.

3.2.1 Bamboo worm

The bamboo worm can be harvested from September to June. Various methods are employed by residents in different regions to identify the presence of the bamboo worm in the bamboo culm. In Laos and Vietnam, the Akha, Khmu, and Tai people use thin culms, short internodes, or larval entry holes to determine bamboo worm presence [19, 39]. In China, ethnic groups such as the Dai (Tai), Jingpo, and Hani (Akha) use yellow bamboo tips or entry holes as indicators [66, 67, 68]. Myanmar’s Kachin, Kayah, and Rakhine people rely on the presence of short internodes and dense sheaths [6, 69], while the Tai people use the presence of entry holes and internode size as indicators [70]. Along the Thailand-Myanmar border, the Karen people identify worms using visual cues, such as yellow leaves, and auditory cues from sounds within bamboo culms [9].

In these areas, two methods are used to cut bamboo for collecting the bamboo worm. The first method involves cutting entire bamboo culms into segments. The second method involves cutting only the infested internodes for collection [11, 66]. After being gathered by hand, the worms are stored in containers made from bamboo internodes to keep them fresh [39, 40].

Most of the bamboo worm is quickly consumed after collection, while some is preserved for future consumption [15]. Local residents typically boil, fry, or freeze the worms for preservation [9, 40].

3.2.2 Bamboo weevil

Information on the methods of collecting the bamboo weevil is limited. Hirota [11] noted that in Laos, larvae are found by villagers by inspecting wilted bamboo shoot tips. After collection, the larvae are brought home to be cooked. Sheng et al. [71] indicated that bamboo weevil larvae can be effectively collected in China by checking for oviposition holes on bamboo shoots and observing withered shoot tips. Manual capture is practical during the morning and evening given that bamboo weevil adults often employ death-feigning behavior and move slowly during these periods [26, 28].

The harvesting processes of the two edible bamboo insects remain poorly understood at the local and ethnic levels.

3.3 Culinary practices of edible bamboo insects

In traditional Tai culinary practices, edible bamboo insects are generally prepared without the use of oil [72, 73]. Young-Aree [74] documented oil-free cooking methods and recipes for the bamboo worm in Thailand. Oil-free bamboo worm recipes are also commonly practiced in Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam [9], as well as in China [67]. Traditional oil-free bamboo worm recipes include a variety of cooking methods, such as poaching and roasting; the bamboo worm can also be cooked using homoke (in which dishes are made by steaming or charcoal baking in a banana leaf; insects are mixed with chili-based ingredients, wrapped, and cooked). Other methods include preparing it as a paste, serving it in hot salads (partially cooked), consuming it raw, or using it as an ingredient in soups [74].

Recently, in Thailand, Oil-based cooking methods, such as deep-frying, sauteing, and frittering, have become popular among non-native consumers, particularly in cities and tourist spots; the bamboo worm is also often added to burgers and sandwiches [74]. Similar trends in cooking practices have been observed in other cultures, such as those in Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam [9, 75]. The deep-fried bamboo worm is a traditional Chinese dish, and the bamboo worm is also commonly fried with poultry eggs [16, 67].

Although bamboo worm culinary practices have been well-studied, information on those of bamboo weevil remains scarce. In Laos, bamboo weevil larvae are commonly stir-fried for consumption, as noted by Hirota [11]; in China, particularly among the Dai (Tai) ethnic group, Hui [16] observed a preference for them to be fried with poultry eggs. After frying, the larvae are squeezed to extract yellow oil, which is then spread over sticky rice before consumption. For bamboo weevil adults, unwanted parts such as the head, legs, and wings are typically removed before roasting or grilling in China [76].

Van-Esterik and Counihan [77] noted that many communities in lowland and highland Laos, northeastern and northern Thailand, and northern Vietnam use sticky rice as a daily staple. In this context, oil-free dishes are prepared as they are most compatible with their regular meals [74]. Recently, deep-fried bamboo insect dishes have gained popularity because of the flavor enhancement provided by frying [9, 74]. However, information remains limited on the reasons behind residents’ preferences for bamboo insects, as well as on the factors influencing their consumption frequency and consumption forms.

3.4 Market sales and food safety of edible bamboo insects

Fresh bamboo worm is available in markets from October to February in Asia [78]. Additionally, processed products made from bamboo worm, such as frozen ones, are available year-round in Thailand [79].

In Thailand, particularly in the northern mountain regions, the semi-cultivation of the bamboo worm is used by impoverished farmers as a source of income [1, 70]. Leksawasdi [80] reported that bamboo worm was priced at 80-120 Thai Baht per kg ($2.58–$3.87/kg) in 2000, but by 2015, Durst and Hanboonsong found that prices had increased to over 300 Baht per kg ($10.00/kg), which reflects the growing demand for this product and the increasing market value. In 2023, Thailand exported over $800,000 worth of edible insects, mainly the cricket, bamboo worm, and grasshopper. Most exports were made to China and Myanmar [74, 79].

Yhoung-Aree [74] suggests that the sale of insects has the potential to improve the economic conditions of impoverished farmers. However, data on the economic contributions of edible bamboo insects to the livelihoods of residents in the mountain areas of Southeast Asia are lacking.

Although edible insects are often regarded as delicious and nutrient-rich, the safety of edible insect consumption requires consideration. Risks associated with the consumption of edible insects may include microbiological hazards (e.g., Escherichia coli) and chemical hazards (e.g., natural toxins and environmental pollutants) [81, 82]. Bamboo worm consumption may result in allergic reactions, including diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and dizziness [83, 84]. Zhang et al. [66] indicated that the intestines of the bamboo worm may harbor pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Shigella. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to improve labeling and packaging, extend the sales duration of insect products, and ensure the safety of insect products. For example, supermarkets in Thailand offer canned, vacuum-packed, and frozen insect products [1]. These measures not only enhance the market appeal of the products but also increase consumer trust and acceptance of insect foods.

3.5 Local vernacular of edible bamboo insects

In the mountain area of Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia, each ethnic group has different names for the two edible bamboo insects (Table 3). In Thailand, the bamboo worm is called “rot duan” because of its resemblance to a train [9]. Hui [16] noted that the bamboo worm is referred to as “Mie” among the Dai (Tai) people in China. Viwatpanich and Yhoung-aree [9] mentioned different names for the bamboo worm used by various ethnic groups, such as “Dae,” “Mangmae,” or “Nae.” However, they did not specify which ethnic groups use these terms.

Table 3: Vernacular name of bamboo worm in mountain area of Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia.

Country	Vernacular name	References
Cambodia	Dongkov Risey, Dangkouv Russei	-*
China (Yunnan Province)	Mie, Zhu Chong, Zhu Qu	[16, 40, 85]
Laos	Daung-nor-mai, To Mir	[23, 39, 86]
Thailand	Non Maipai, Norngyuea phai, Rode Duan, Rot Duan	[9, 74, 87]
Vietnam	Sau Tre	[88, 89]
Myanmar	Wah Poe	[6]

Note: * indicates the vernacular name of the bamboo worm in Cambodia is not documented in the relevant English literature. This vernacular name was collected through interviews with individuals in Cambodia who have consumed this insect.

In Laos, the bamboo weevil is known as “Meang chi noun” [86]. In China, it is referred to as “Zhu Daxiang” [16] and “竹鼻象虫” (Zhu Bi Xiang Chong) [11]. Additionally, Hui [16] noted that the bamboo weevil is referred to as “Yi Yue” among the Dai (Tai) people in China.

However, detailed information on the vernacular names of these two edible bamboo insects across different ethnic groups is limited.

4. Nutrient composition and medicinal aspect of bamboo insects

Nutritional information regarding insects is essential for consumers to comprehend the quality and quantity of their food intake. Moreover, the nutritional value of insects varies depending on several factors, including species and preparation methods [90], feeding practices [15], as well as habitat, developmental stage, and storage conditions prior to consumption [74].

4.1 Nutrient composition of bamboo insects

The nutritional content of edible bamboo insects varies among different growth stages [46, 68] (Table 4). The nutritional components were compared with two common regional foods: beef, a traditional livestock product, and silkworm pupae, a popular edible insect in the area.

Table 4: Nutritional components of two edible bamboo insects (fresh weight)

Common name and Scientific name		Bamboo worm	Bamboo weevil
		(Omphisa fuscidentalis)	(Cyrtotrachelus buqueti)
Growth stage (edible part)		Larva	Larva	Pupa	Adult (♀)	Adult (♂)
Nutrient (g/100g)	Ash	0.5	1.7	2.6	3.3	3.1
	Carbohydrate	2.4	10.9	10.0	3.9	4.9
	Cholesterol	0.1	-*	-*	-*	-*
	Crude fat	21.0	3.5	9.8	5.0	4.0
	Crude protein	9.9	4.7	13.6	28.7	28.8
	Moisture	66.2	75.8	70.6	55.3	60.9
Micronutrient (mg/100g)	Calcium (Ca)	16.0	3.8	10.1	38.1	38.6
	Copper (Cu)	0.3	0.4	0.4	2.3	2.2
	Iron (Fe)	2.1	0.7	5.0	12.5	11.7
	Potassium (K)	182.0	-*	-*	-*	-*
	Sodium (Na)	4.8	-*	-*	-*	-*
	Zinc (Zn)	3.9	1.2	2.6	10.0	9.6
Fatty acid (g/100g)	C16:0	46.3	41.9	41.8	31.9	37.9
	C18:1	40.2	46.1	45.9	38.7	46.3
	C18:2	1.8	3.1	3.1	6.0	7.5
	C18:3	0.7	0.7	0.7	1.8	2.2
	SFA	47.7	45.9	46.6	35.5	40.8
	UFA	42.8	53.1	52.6	48.3	58.0

Note: * indicates that no data is available. SFA refers to saturated fatty acids, and UFA refers to unsaturated fatty acids. Data for bamboo worm is referenced from [68], and data for bamboo weevil is referenced from [46].

The bamboo worm has a lower cholesterol and sodium content than silkworm pupae (0.2 g/100 g of cholesterol and 140.2 mg/100 g of sodium, respectively) [68]. Thus, the bamboo worm is considered more suitable for consumers who need to carefully manage their cholesterol and sodium intake [68, 91]. Additionally, bamboo weevil adults have significantly higher levels of calcium, iron, zinc, and copper than the bamboo weevil at other stages and even lean beef (23.0 mg/100 g of calcium, 3.3 mg/100 g of iron, 4.7 mg/100 g of zinc, and 0.2 mg/100 g of copper) [46]. This suggests that it may serve as an alternative source of traditional meat supplementation.

The fatty acid content of edible bamboo insects is abundant and well-composed; it contains a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. They are also rich in essential fatty acids for the human body, such as alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3) and linoleic acid (C18:2), which provide significant dietary and nutritional health benefits. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, proteins ideally should have a 40% ratio of essential to non-essential amino acids. The bamboo worm has a ratio of 35.4%, and the bamboo weevil, excluding the pupal stage, exceeds this standard; these insects thus provide a good source of high-quality protein [46, 68].

Yhoung-aree [74] noted that cooking methods can enhance the calorie, fat, and protein content of insects and demonstrated that frying significantly increases the content of these nutritional components in the bamboo worm. However, detailed information regarding the effects of cooking methods on the nutritional content of the two edible bamboo insects is limited.

4.2 Medicinal value

Traditional medicinal practices using insects are commonly implemented in rural areas of Yunnan and Southeast Asia [65]. Insects are valued for their nutritional content and bioactive compounds and have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and immune-boosting effects [92, 93]. Previous studies suggest that insect fats, especially unsaturated fatty acids, may help delay aging and improve resistance to cardiovascular diseases [94].

The medicinal value of the bamboo weevil has been documented in traditional Chinese medicine books, which recommend it for treating rheumatic pain and dysentery [47]. Previous studies have demonstrated that the antimicrobial effects of peptides extracted from the male accessory glands of the bamboo weevil can help alleviate bacterial infections, including Staphylococcus aureus [95]. Furthermore, healthcare products derived from the bamboo weevil, such as freeze-dried buccal tablets and capsules, have been shown to alleviate rheumatism and have other health-promoting effects [47].

The medicinal value of edible bamboo insects has not been fully clarified. More scientific research and technological support are necessary to promote their use in modern medicine.

5. Relationship between edible bamboo insect food culture and local livelihoods

Edible bamboo insects are one of many biological products harvested from forests for human use. All such products, excluding commercial timber, are known as NTFPs [96]. Since the late 1980s, interest in NTFPs has increased, and this has been associated with the increased global interest in environmental issues, rural development, and sustainable development [97, 98]. Although the increased interest stems from the two main propositions that the use of NTFPs causes less ecological damage than timber harvesting and is more beneficial for biodiversity conservation, NTFPs can also enhance rural livelihoods [96, 97].

Regarding the enhancement of rural livelihoods through NTFPs, many studies indicate that edible NTFPs constitute a significant portion of food baskets [99] and act as a safety net during food shortages [98]. Additionally, commercial NTFPs often provide a source of stable cash income [96, 100], and local packages of commercial NTFPs contribute to both total household income and income diversity [101]. Although many NTFPs are generally regarded as supplementary livelihood sources in subsistence economies [98, 102], many researchers emphasize that commercialized NTFPs play an important role in household economies, particularly for low-income households of rural forest-dwelling communities and remote mountain villages [8, 103]. Many studies of the role of NTFPs have focused on their economic contributions; however, their cultural significance is often overlooked.

Over the past three decades, rural livelihoods in the mountain areas of Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia have been significantly transformed because of globalization and improvements in transportation infrastructure. The main agricultural activities have gradually shifted from subsistence farming, such as shifting cultivation, to the cultivation of cash crops such as maize, rubber, and coffee [8]. Despite this transition, some traditional activities with lower economic returns, such as the collection of edible bamboo insects, are still in use.

This persistence is closely linked to the multifaceted value of bamboo. Historically, people in Asia have utilized bamboo for a wide variety of purposes. Bamboo is connected to nearly every aspect of daily life, including household items, farming tools, fishing or hunting equipment, and ceremonial instruments. Edible bamboo insects are one of these components. Bamboo has long contributed to and characterized Asian material culture and food culture. Bamboo has many uses, and it is common for even a single village to use bamboo in various ways. From the observations of fieldworks by authors both in China and Laos, villagers recognize its diverse value in bamboo. The value of bamboo insects is not recognized independently but rather as part of the overall value of bamboo, which is why bamboo is maintained within the village. It is through this comprehensive value assessment, including these minor and subsidiary values such as bamboo insects or minor uses, that the diverse values of bamboo are preserved. In studies of other NTFPs, the focus has typically been on evaluating individual products, resulting in simplistic assessments [e.g. 102, 103]. As mentioned above, bamboo possesses complex and diverse values that should be properly evaluated. This comprehensive evaluation may be closely linked to understand the mechanisms that sustain minor resources such as bamboo insects.

Recently, edible bamboo insects, particularly the bamboo worm, have received increased attention for their contribution to local livelihoods, particularly in food culture [1, 74]. Urbanization is progressing in Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia, and bamboo insects have come to be consumed by people who have migrated to urban areas. The supplies of these insects are derived from resources in surrounding mountain villages. They still have a cultural role within society in certain contexts, although this role is less apparent. They also serve as regionally distinctive resources. Additional research on the resource dynamics within villages, the relationship between villages and urban areas, and cultural aspects is needed.

6. Summary and conclusion

Bamboo insects are distinctive resources that are widespread in Yunnan and mainland Southeast Asia. While this paper summarizes current findings on bamboo insects from various viewpoints, local-level information remains limited. Bamboo insects enrich local dishes and represent an important component of the region’s food culture. As partially suggested above, the diverse bamboo resources and the eating habits of bamboo insects in the region may be interconnected, with local people recognizing the holistic value of bamboo resources. This recognition may ultimately or indirectly contribute to the survival of these resources. However, one-sided research or political evaluations cannot help in understanding the dynamics of bamboo insect food culture. More integrated evaluations of these resources are needed.

Bamboo insects are a minor resource, one of many biological resources in Southeast Asia and Yunnan. People in this region have used bamboo for a variety of purposes. These have a very long history and have supported the material culture of the region. In recent years, some aspects of the region have seen a decline in the use of bamboo and in the biomass of bamboo itself, but some use of bamboo continues. The culture of eating bamboo worms, for example, continues in Yunnan and Southeast Asia, and in some cases has conversely gained value as a nostalgic meal, especially for the influx of people from rural areas into urban areas, or as an interesting meal for those who did not know about it. As described above, the functionality of insect foods has also been re-evaluated in recent years, and research is needed to add new aspects as well as a holistic evaluation of bamboo resources in food and material culture, including bamboo insect utilization.

Acknowledgment

This work was financially supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number JP20KK0014 and 23K17528) and JST SPRING (Grant Number JPMJSP2125). The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the “THERS Make New Standards Program for the Next Generation Researchers”.

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