Xylooligosaccharides are functional food supplements that refer to indigestible oligosaccharides consisting of D-xylose molecules linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Xylooligosaccharides in the human body perform the functions of prebiotics; they have antioxidant, immunomodulatory and antitumor effects. In industry, xylooligosaccharides are obtained from lignocellulosic biomass by hydrolysis of the xylan contained therein. Chemical hydrolysis is carried out with acid or alkali solutions and is associated with negative environmental consequences. Autohydrolysis refers to methods of physical impact on lignocellulosic raw materials, in which, under the action of high pressure and temperature, steam cracking of raw materials and separation of carbohydrates into fractions occur. Enzymatic hydrolysis of xylan provides the purest products and allows you to control the functional orientation of the resulting xylooligosaccharides. Hydrolysis of xylan to obtain xylooligosaccharides is carried out by microbial xylanases and β-xylosidases produced by bacteria, molds, and actinomycetes. Xylanase producers are ubiquitous in lignocellulosic raw materials and isolated from soil, corn cobs, wheat husks, rice and wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm waste, wood chips, sugar bagasse, forest litter, and eucalyptus leaves.

An adipose tissue is the principal storage site for fat and secretes adipokines, including leptin, adiponectin, resistin, chemerin, visfatin, and apelin. Adipokines and their receptors have been demonstrated to be present and to play a role in the reproductive systems of various livestock species. Livestock reproductive function is thought to be influenced by adipokines, or hormones derived from adipokines. These adipokines have been implicated at all levels of the reproductive axis, including the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and gonads. Adipokines can amplify reproductive activity by increasing energy levels and triggering the production of essential reproductive hormones. The development of reproductive hormones, semen, estrus behavior, ovulation, and subsequent development of the corpus luteum and seminal concentrations are all regulated by adipokines. In this way, adipokines could impact key elements like ovarian follicles, corpus luteum, Leydig cells, and spermatogenesis. Moreover, polymorphisms of adipokines genes have been identified in domestic animals with economic traits. Domestic animal production and reproduction traits are also affected by genetic variability in the adipokine genes. Therefore, this review aims to summarize adipokines and how they are known to regulate reproductive physiology, such as the production of steroid hormones, cell proliferation, oocyte maturation, and sperm development in domestic animals.

The institutional history of agricultural co-operatives in Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, and China has similarities in terms of pre-establishment, establishment, and development stages, but relatively different in the side of recognition and introspection, as well as the choice stage. Among the four countries, the initiators of agricultural co-operatives establishment are not only the community/grassroots movement, respectable individuals, and non-governmental organizations, but also the government. Once the government oversees agricultural co-operative development, it uses its political power to position the organization as a state agency. By that, facilities are given to accelerate the policy makers’ goals and positively impact the agricultural co-operatives’ organizational growth. However, the farmer-members in Japan recognized that the co-operatives do not accommodate their needs. Later, with the aid from the new-regime government, the agricultural co-operative in the country was gradually reinvented. In South Korea, the farmer-members disagree with the decision from the government to use agricultural co-operatives as parastatal. Therefore, they later pooled their resources, urged changes, and successfully ran the agricultural co-operatives per se. On the other hand, in Indonesia, when the government loosened its ties, agricultural co-operatives with sufficient human resources reinvented or spawned the organization. In contrast, the ones with poor management quality chose the status quo or exit. In China, the loophole in the government policy encouraged more private companies or prominent capital entrepreneurs to run the co-operatives instead of farmers. Consequently, agricultural co-operatives with no actual member farmers focused on commercial activities unrelated to the members’ needs or placed the farmers merely as the users, not the decision-makers, could be found within the country. The review of institutional history emphasizes the importance of further study about the longevity of government-led and non-governmental-led agricultural co-operatives.

Indonesia has very rich biological resources and is diverse in both land and sea areas, so it is known as a mega biodiversity country. Sea cucumbers are one of the potential export commodities in the fisheries sub-sector. The use of sea cucumbers in Indonesia as a food ingredient compared to other fishery products is relatively low and less popular because they have low aesthetic value judging from their disgusting physical appearance. This review aims to provide an overview of sea cucumbers’ bioactive compounds and functional properties so that this information will provide a comprehensive perspective in developing sea cucumber-based nutraceuticals. The nutritional content of dried sea cucumbers was 82% protein, 1.7% fat, 8.9% water, 8.6% ash, 4.8% carbohydrates, phosphorus, iron, iodine, sodium, and vitamins A and B (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin). Bioactive components in sea cucumbers contain collagen, glycosides, polysaccharides, glycosaminoglycans, N-acetylglucosamine, chondroitin sulfate, steroids, lectins, omega-3 fatty acids and phenolic compounds. Sea cucumbers have functional properties such as antioxidative, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antimicrobial, anti-atherosclerosis, antiosteoporosis, anti-diabetic, antiaging, and anti-obesity. The functional properties provide an excellent opportunity to develop high-value nutraceuticals from sea cucumbers. The main factors for producing and developing nutraceuticals based on sea cucumbers are organoleptic, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability.