2026 Volume 14 Issue 1 Pages 110-135
Flavour is a critical driver of consumer acceptance and market success for novel food products, particularly plant-based and cultured meat systems that aim to replicate the sensory experience of conventional meat. However, reproducing the complex aroma and taste of animal-derived products remains a significant challenge. Flavour biotechnology offers innovative tools to address this issue through enzymatic processing, microbial fermentation, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology. These biotechnological strategies enable the generation, enhancement, and customisation of flavour compounds, including volatile aroma molecules, amino acid derivatives, and Maillard reaction precursors, that are essential for achieving authentic meat-like profiles. This review highlights recent advances in flavour biotechnology for both plant-based and cultured meat, emphasising the role of microorganisms, engineered enzymes, and bio-based flavour precursors. Furthermore, it explores the integration of these technologies into food production pipelines, along with the regulatory, sensory, and sustainability considerations associated with their adoption. The application of flavour biotechnology not only improves product realism and consumer satisfaction but also contributes to the broader goals of sustainable food innovation and protein system transformation. This review highlights recent advances and ongoing challenges in meaty flavour biotechnology, including the use of analytical tools such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electronic noses, as well as applications of genetic engineering, microbial technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), and bioinformatics for flavour enhancement and optimization. GC-MS and sensory evaluation remain essential methods, while novel approaches like electronic noses and AI offer innovative solutions. Genetic engineering, including CRISPR, and microbial fermentation can boost the production of flavour precursors. Challenges persist in masking undesirable plant protein flavours and retaining flavour during CM processing.
The global food industry is undergoing a profound transformation driven by the need for sustainable, ethical, and health-conscious alternatives to conventional animal products [1]. In this context, plant-based and cultured meat systems have emerged as promising innovations that aim to replicate the sensory and nutritional characteristics of traditional meat while reducing environmental impact and animal suffering [2]. However, one of the most critical challenges in the widespread acceptance of these novel protein sources lies in flavour, a key determinant of consumer preference and repeat purchase. Flavour biotechnology offers a powerful toolbox to address this challenge by harnessing biological processes and molecular techniques to develop, enhance, or replicate desirable flavour profiles [3]. Techniques such as microbial fermentation, enzymatic transformation, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology enable the creation of complex aroma and taste compounds traditionally associated with animal-derived products [4]. By leveraging advances in these biotechnological approaches, it is now possible to design more authentic, appealing, and customizable flavour profiles for alternative protein products [5].
Flavour is a complex, multifactorial attribute of meat palatability, integrating olfactory, gustatory, and somatosensory stimuli during consumption [1]. The characteristic meaty flavour arises from a range of volatile and non-volatile compounds generated primarily during cooking, particularly through Maillard reactions and lipid oxidation processes [2]. Over the past decade, biotechnological research on meaty flavour has advanced rapidly, driven by the growing demand for meat alternatives and the need to enhance the sensory quality of meat products [3]. These efforts align with global shifts toward sustainable and ethical food production systems [4]. Replicating authentic meaty flavour remains a considerable scientific challenge due to its complex chemical composition and multistage formation pathways [1, 3, 5]. The generation and perception of meat flavour involve diverse compounds that interact with olfactory receptors (for volatile aromas) and gustatory receptors (for basic tastes such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami) [6, 7].
Initially, meat-like flavours were synthesised using reaction flavour techniques that mimic the Maillard reaction by heating amino acids and reducing sugars [8]. However, recent advancements have shifted toward biotechnological approaches, including the use of engineered microbial systems, enzyme-based biosynthesis, and plant-derived flavour precursors to recreate or enhance the sensory characteristics of meat [9]. Although several comprehensive reviews have documented the chemical and sensory complexity of meat flavour, much remains unknown about the underlying biochemical mechanisms and compound interactions responsible for its perception.
This review explores the state-of-the-art applications of flavour biotechnology in the development of plant-based and cultured meat systems, focusing on microbial production of flavour precursors, enzymatic release of bound aroma compounds, and the engineering of biosynthetic pathways for meat-like volatiles. Furthermore, we examine how these innovations intersect with consumer perception, regulatory frameworks, and industry trends, highlighting their potential to drive the next generation of food innovation. Accordingly, this review summarises the latest advances, trends, and persistent challenges in the biotechnological development of meaty flavour, with a focus on flavour compound synthesis, microbial and enzymatic strategies, and applications in alternative protein sources.
Understanding and replicating the complex flavour profile of meat requires precise and multifaceted analytical approaches (Table 1). Meat flavour arises from an intricate interplay of volatile compounds (aromas), non-volatile compounds (taste-active molecules), and matrix interactions during cooking and processing [10, 11, 12]. As alternative meat technologies evolve, the demand for advanced analytical tools to accurately characterise and replicate meaty flavour has grown significantly. Traditionally, techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) have been widely employed to identify and quantify volatile aroma compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, sulphur-containing molecules, and pyrazines, key contributors to cooked meat aroma. Coupling GC-MS with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) enhances sensitivity and minimises sample degradation, making it a gold standard in volatile analysis [10, 11]. SPME has gained traction for its solvent-free extraction of volatiles, thereby improving sensitivity in meat aroma analysis, particularly in roasted beef. Optimisation of SPME conditions, such as fibre coating, temperature, and time, enhances the comprehensiveness of volatile detection [13].
| Analytical Technique | Purpose | Key Features/Recent Advances | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) | Identification and quantification of volatile flavour compounds | High sensitivity; often coupled with SPME for sample preparation | [10] |
| GC-Olfactometry (GC-O) | Links chemical compounds to sensory perception | Combines GC with human sensory detection; used to identify key aroma-active compounds | [11] |
| High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) | Analysis of non-volatile flavour precursors (amino acids, sugars) | Effective for profiling Maillard reaction precursors and taste-active compounds | [12] |
| Electronic Nose (E-nose) | Rapid fingerprinting of volatile profiles | Sensor-based detection mimicking human olfaction; useful for quality control and shelf-life monitoring | [14] |
| Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) | Structural elucidation of complex flavour molecules | Non-destructive analysis of metabolic changes in meat and cultured cells | [13] |
| Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) | Monitoring chemical changes during processing | Quick, non-invasive; used to detect lipid oxidation and protein denaturation | [15] |
| Descriptive Sensory Analysis | Human-based evaluation of flavour attributes | Involves trained panels; often used alongside instrumental techniques for validation | [16] |
| Time–Intensity Analysis | Measures flavour perception over time | Useful for tracking flavour release and mouthfeel dynamics in meat analogues | [17] |
| Metabolomics | Global profiling of small molecules linked to flavour generation | Applied to identify biomarkers of meat flavour and optimise cultured meat flavour precursors | [11, 15] |
| Machine Learning & AI Integration | Data modelling and flavour prediction | Emerging use in predicting sensory outcomes and optimising formulations based on big data | [12, 16] |
Analyzing meat flavour involves integrating advanced instrumental methods and sensory evaluations to address the complexity of its volatile and non-volatile compounds. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) remains the gold standard for identifying key aroma compounds such as hexanal and methional [10]. Hyphenated techniques, such as GC-olfactometry (GC-O) and two-dimensional GC (GC×GC), provide deeper profiling by correlating chemical data with sensory attributes [11]. To correlate instrumental data with human perception, gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O) provides a powerful solution [12]. By integrating human sensory input directly into the analytical process, GC-O identifies aroma-active compounds that may be present at trace levels yet significantly impact overall flavour perception [11, 12]. On the non-volatile side, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is extensively used to analyse flavour precursors, such as free amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides [11, 12]. These compounds participate in Maillard and Strecker reactions during cooking and are critical to the formation of meaty flavour notes [13, 14].
Sensory evaluation by trained panels remains essential, capturing nuanced taste and aroma attributes. Beyond conventional descriptive sensory analysis, time-dependent sensory methods have gained increasing attention in meat and alternative meat research because they capture the dynamic nature of flavour perception during consumption [15]. Among these, Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) enables the identification of dominant sensory attributes from the initial bite through swallowing to aftertaste [16]. This approach is particularly relevant for meat and plant-based meat analogues, where aroma release, texture breakdown, and retronasal perception change continuously during mastication [17]. TDS has been successfully applied to evaluate cooked meat, processed meat products, and plant-based meat analogues, revealing differences in aroma persistence, flavour sequence, and sensory balance that are not detectable using static sensory methods [15, 16]. Consequently, integrating TDS with instrumental aroma analysis provides a more comprehensive understanding of how formulation, processing, and matrix structure influence perceived meat-like flavour and offers valuable guidance for the optimisation of alternative meat products [15, 18]. When combined with instrumental data and consumer studies, this approach bridges analytical findings with real-world preferences, identifying key flavour markers in meat products [15, 16, 17]. Collectively, these integrated methodologies provide a robust platform for precise flavour characterisation, aligning scientific analysis with consumer expectations to support quality improvement in meat products (Table 1).
In recent years, electronic noses (E-noses) have attracted attention for their ability to rapidly classify aroma profiles using sensor arrays. While less precise than GC-MS, E-noses offer advantages in real-time monitoring, quality control, and shelf-life prediction, especially in industrial settings [11, 12, 13]. Emerging technologies such as electronic tongues and noses complement these methods. Electronic tongues utilise signal response patterns and principal component analysis to interpret flavour and predict consumer preferences. Meanwhile, e-noses enable rapid, non-destructive freshness assessment by detecting spoilage-related volatile organic compounds, often integrated with IoT and computer vision for enhanced accuracy [12, 14].
Advanced techniques like nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) have enabled researchers to investigate structural changes in meat tissue during storage, fermentation, or cooking. These methods are particularly useful in understanding lipid oxidation and protein denaturation, which significantly affect flavour development and stability [13, 15]. Emerging metabolomic approaches enable comprehensive profiling of small molecules involved in flavour pathways, particularly useful in cultured meat research, where cellular metabolites and their transformations are still being mapped. The integration of multi-omics data, combining genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, holds great promise for uncovering the biological basis of flavour generation [16, 17].
Furthermore, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning is revolutionising flavour analysis. These tools can identify patterns in complex datasets, model sensory responses, and even predict flavour outcomes based on ingredient combinations and processing conditions [15, 17]. This predictive capability can significantly accelerate formulation optimisation for both traditional and alternative meat products. The ongoing advancement of analytical tools and their integration with computational technologies is transforming the way we understand, evaluate, and replicate meat flavour. These innovations not only deepen our scientific understanding but also provide the foundation for precision flavour engineering in sustainable meat alternatives and high-quality conventional meat products.
The identification of key flavour compounds in meat is essential to understanding its unique and highly desirable sensory profile [7]. Meat flavour is a product of complex interactions among volatile and non-volatile compounds generated through biochemical and thermochemical reactions during muscle metabolism, postmortem ageing, and cooking [9]. These compounds contribute to the overall perception of aroma (volatile) and taste (non-volatile), which together define the “meaty” experience consumers seek [10]. Meat flavour, both fresh and cooked, arises from a complex interplay of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which significantly affect consumer perception (Table 2). In fresh meat, the major volatile compounds include aldehydes, alcohols, and hydrocarbons. Compounds like hexanal (grassy aroma) and nonanal (fatty scent) are influenced by species, diet, and handling [7, 10].
Among the most influential compounds in meat flavour are sulphur-containing molecules, which are primarily derived from amino acids such as cysteine and methionine via Maillard reactions and thermal degradation. These compounds, including methanethiol and thiophenes, impart intense meaty, brothy, and umami notes even at very low concentrations due to their low odour thresholds. Cooking transforms these compounds through the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation, producing over 1000 VOCs, mainly aldehydes, sulphur compounds, alcohols, esters, ketones, and heterocyclics [18, 19]. Lipid degradation contributes to species-specific aromas, while Maillard-derived heterocyclics such as pyrazines, thiazoles, and sulphur compounds produce roast, grilled, and savoury notes. Sulphur compounds, including furanones and disulphides, are especially critical in cooked meat aroma [20, 21].
In chicken, key compounds include nonanal, octanal, and 1-octen-3-ol, while pork is rich in hexanal, octanal, and (E)-2-octenal [22, 23]. Phenols like 2-methoxyphenol characterise smoked meats [24]. While aldehydes dominate across species, ketones, esters, and alcohols enrich the overall sensory complexity [31]. Lipid-derived compounds such as aldehydes (e.g., hexanal, nonanal) and ketones contribute fatty, green, and buttery aromas, particularly in fatty meats. These are typically formed through oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and are especially important in differentiating flavour profiles among meat species and fat content levels.
Pyrazines represent another critical group of flavour compounds responsible for roasted and nutty notes, particularly in grilled or pan-fried meats. Pyrazines are primarily formed via Strecker degradation, a side pathway of the Maillard reaction, in which amino acids interact with carbonyl compounds derived from reducing sugars, and are considered highly desirable contributors to cooked meat and meat analogue flavour profiles [25, 26]. Pyrazines and ketones from the Maillard reaction also contribute to desirable and off-flavours. Heating methods impact their interaction with meat proteins, influencing flavour perception [25, 26]. Compounds like 2-methylpyrazine and 2,3-octanedione add nutty and caramel notes, while lactones such as γ-hexalactone impart sweetness, especially in beef [22, 28]. Heterocyclic compounds, though essential for flavour, can also form harmful substances, such as heterocyclic amines, during high-temperature cooking [29, 32]. Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) may further compromise flavour and safety [24].
In parallel, alcohols and furans add complexity to meat aroma, contributing earthy, mushroom-like, or sweet-caramel notes depending on the cooking process and lipid composition. Although often considered secondary contributors, these compounds enhance the depth and realism of the overall flavour profile. Non-volatile taste compounds, including nucleotides such as inosine monophosphate (IMP) and glutamic acid, are responsible for umami and brothy tastes that are signature characteristics of meat. These compounds are formed through ATP degradation during postmortem ageing and significantly influence taste perception even in the absence of aroma [22, 28].
Recent advances in metabolomics and sensory-linked flavonomics provide more detailed insights into flavour pathways and help guide the engineering of flavour in plant-based and cultured meat alternatives [29, 30]. The comprehensive identification and understanding of key meat flavour compounds serve as a foundation for flavour replication, enhancement, and innovation in both conventional and alternative meat systems. Continued research in this area will support the development of more authentic, satisfying, and sustainable protein products for future food markets.
| Compound Class | Representative Compounds | Sensory Characteristics | Typical Odour Threshold* | Formation Pathway | Source in Meat | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sulphur Compounds | Methanethiol, Hydrogen sulphide, Thiophenes, Mercaptans | Meaty, boiled, savoury, onion-like | 0.001–1 µg/kg | Maillard reaction (sulphur-containing amino acids) | Cysteine, methionine | [18, 19, 20, 21] |
| Pyrazines | 2-Methylpyrazine, 2,6-Dimethylpyrazine | Roasted, nutty, grilled | 1–50 µg/kg | Maillard reaction (amino acids + sugars) | Cooked muscle proteins and sugars | [22, 23] |
| Aldehydes | Hexanal, Nonanal, Benzaldehyde | Green, fatty, almond-like | 5–300 µg/kg | Lipid oxidation (PUFA degradation) | Fatty acids (linoleic, oleic acids) | [18, 19, 21, 24] |
| Ketones | 2,3-Butanedione, 3-Octen-2-one | Buttery, creamy, mushroom-like | 10–200 µg/kg | Lipid oxidation and microbial activity | Muscle lipids, microbial fermentation | [22, 25] |
| Alcohols | 1-Octen-3-ol, Ethanol | Mushroom, earthy, alcoholic | 20–1,000 µg/kg | Lipid oxidation, microbial metabolism | Degraded unsaturated fatty acids | [24, 26] |
| Furans | Furfural, 2-Acetylfuran | Sweet, caramel, roasted | 10–100 µg/kg | Maillard reaction and sugar degradation | Reducing sugars and amino acids | [27, 28] |
| Esters | Ethyl butanoate, Methyl acetate | Fruity, sweet | 50–500 µg/kg | Microbial fermentation (especially in cured meats) | Fermentation products | [29, 30] |
| Nucleotides and Derivatives | Inosine monophosphate (IMP), GMP | Umami, brothy | Taste-active: ~10–50 mg/kg | Endogenous nucleotide breakdown postmortem | Muscle cells (ATP degradation) | [23, 25] |
| Phenolic Compounds | Guaiacol, Eugenol | Smoky, spicy, clove-like | 1–50 µg/kg | Smoke curing or spice addition | Wood smoke, seasoning ingredients | [22, 28] |
| Short-chain Fatty Acids | Butyric acid, Hexanoic acid | Rancid, cheesy, pungent | 200–5,000 µg/kg | Lipid hydrolysis and microbial metabolism | Fat degradation, especially in ageing | [21, 27] |
Biotechnological approaches such as fermentation, metabolic engineering, and gene editing are revolutionising flavour enhancement. Engineered microbes can produce flavour precursors, boosting umami and kokumi tastes [32, 33, 34]. Enzymatic hydrolysis also releases nucleotides and amino acids, which are critical for umami (Table 3). Flavour is a central quality attribute of conventional meat, significantly influencing consumer satisfaction and market value. Traditional meat flavour arises from the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation during cooking, where amino acids, reducing sugars, and fatty acids interact to produce characteristic aroma and taste compounds [32, 33]. However, flavour development is influenced by multiple factors, including animal breed, feed composition, muscle type, postmortem ageing, and cooking methods. Biotechnology offers innovative solutions to improve and standardise meat flavour by intervening at various stages of production, from animal physiology to post-slaughter processing [34, 35, 36].
One of the most promising applications is metabolic engineering and nutritional modulation of livestock. By adjusting the animal’s diet with specific precursors or probiotics, it is possible to influence the biosynthesis of intramuscular fat (marbling) and flavour precursors, such as amino acids and nucleotides [35, 36, 37]. For example, dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids or essential amino acids can enhance the generation of desirable flavour compounds upon cooking [38, 39, 40]. Additionally, microbial biotechnology plays a crucial role in post-slaughter flavour enhancement. The use of starter cultures or enzyme cocktails during meat fermentation and ageing can accelerate flavour development and improve consistency. Enzymes such as proteases and lipases break down proteins and lipids, releasing flavour-active compounds or their precursors. This is particularly valuable in the production of dry-cured meats, where controlled microbial and enzymatic activity is essential to achieving traditional flavour profiles [39, 41].
Recent advances in genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics also allow for the identification of key genes and pathways involved in flavour compound biosynthesis in meat animals [35, 36, 37]. By integrating this data into breeding programs or genome editing approaches (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9), it is feasible to select or engineer livestock with enhanced intrinsic flavour potential. Furthermore, integrating bioinformatics and sensory science enables predictive modelling of flavour development under different biotechnological interventions. These tools help tailor processing conditions and optimise ingredient interactions to achieve consistent and desirable flavour outcomes [36, 37, 38].
Gene editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9) can target flavour-related traits, such as fat composition and muscle development [35, 39]. Muscle development plays a fundamental role in determining meat aroma by shaping the composition and distribution of key flavour precursors, enzymatic activities, and tissue structure [36]. During muscle growth and differentiation, changes in protein turnover and muscle fibre type composition influence the pool of free amino acids and peptides released postmortem, which serve as critical precursors for Maillard reactions and Strecker degradation during cooking [37, 38]. In parallel, muscle development affects lipid deposition and fatty acid profiles, particularly the balance between phospholipids and neutral lipids, which governs the formation of lipid-derived volatiles such as aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols that contribute to species-specific meat aromas [35, 37]. Enzyme systems associated with muscle metabolism, including proteases and lipases, further modulate precursor availability by promoting the release of amino acids and fatty acids during aging and early thermal processing [36, 38]. Additionally, muscle tissue structure, such as fibre diameter, connective tissue content, and intramuscular fat distribution, controls heat transfer, water retention, and oxygen diffusion during cooking, thereby influencing reaction kinetics and aroma compound release [35, 36, 37]. Collectively, these developmental factors explain 37why differences in muscle type, growth rate, and physiological maturity result in distinct aroma profiles in cooked meat, and they provide critical insights for designing plant-based and cultured meat systems that aim to replicate authentic meat aroma [36, 37, 38, 39].
Editing genes like myostatin, DGAT1, calpain, and calpastatin improves marbling, tenderness, and flavour [35, 36, 37, 38]. Additionally, nutritional strategies such as feed supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, or herbal additives enhance fatty acid profiles and aroma complexity [39, 40, 41, 42]. Probiotics (e.g. Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Enterococcus) support gut health and metabolic efficiency, resulting in improved fat utilisation and increased production of volatile flavour compounds [43, 44, 45]. These microbial interventions enrich flavour while meeting consumer demands for healthier, high-quality meat. Biotechnology offers a multifaceted approach to enhancing meat flavour, ranging from pre-harvest interventions to post-harvest processing. These innovations not only improve product quality and differentiation but also align with industry goals for sustainability, traceability, and consumer satisfaction.
| Biotechnological Approach | Mechanism | Application | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Metabolic Engineering and Nutritional Modulation | Alters animal metabolism via diet or genetic selection to enhance precursor compounds | Feeding livestock omega-3-rich diets to enhance lipid-derived flavour compounds | [35] |
| Probiotic and Prebiotic Supplementation | Modifies gut microbiota to influence systemic metabolism and flavour precursor availability | Supplementing with Lactobacillus spp. to modulate amino acid metabolism in meat animals | [36] |
| Enzymatic Treatment (Exogenous Enzymes) | Proteases and lipases break down proteins and fats to release free amino acids and fatty acids | Use of papain or bromelain in meat tenderization and flavour enhancement | [37] |
| Controlled Fermentation (Microbial Cultures) | Microorganisms produce flavour compounds or catalyze reactions during curing and ageing | Use of lactic acid bacteria in fermented sausages to enhance umami and tangy notes | [38] |
| Genetic Selection and Breeding | Selecting animals with favourable genes for marbling or amino acid composition | Breeding cattle for higher intramuscular fat linked to beefy flavour | [39] |
| Genomic and Proteomic Profiling | Identifies genes and proteins involved in flavour biosynthesis for use in breeding or processing | Transcriptomic analysis of flavour pathways in pork or beef muscle | [40] |
| Postmortem Enzyme Activation | Stimulates endogenous enzyme activity to enhance flavour during ageing | Dry-ageing beef under controlled conditions to increase flavour depth | [41] |
| Encapsulation of Flavour Precursors | Protects and delivers targeted flavour compounds during cooking | Encapsulated amino acids or sugars released during thermal processing | [42] |
The development of flavour in fermented meat products is a multifactorial process resulting from the interactions among biochemical, chemical, and physicochemical transformations during processing and maturation (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3). Flavour formation is fundamentally dependent on the availability and transformation of key precursors—primarily proteins and lipids—present in the meat matrix. Proteolysis releases peptides and free amino acids, while lipolysis generates free fatty acids; both pools serve as essential substrates for downstream aroma-forming reactions [46].
As fermentation and ripening progress, structural changes in meat proteins are observed, typically characterised by a reduction in α-helix content and a corresponding increase in β-sheet structures (Figure 2) [9]. These conformational changes enhance protein accessibility to enzymatic and chemical reactions, facilitating the generation of flavour-active compounds. Concurrently, lipids undergo hydrolysis and oxidation, yielding aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and hydrocarbons that contribute to characteristic meat aromas [47, 48, 49].
In addition to enzymatic reactions, non-enzymatic chemical pathways play a critical role in flavour development. Lipid autoxidation, Strecker degradation, and Maillard reactions contribute significantly to the formation of heterocyclic and carbonyl compounds, particularly during curing and ageing stages. These reactions lead to the accumulation of key volatile classes—including aldehydes, ketones, pyrazines, furans, and sulphur-containing compounds-that define cooked, roasted, and savoury flavour notes in fermented meats [50, 51].
The volatile compounds formed during these processes can be categorised according to their dominant sensory attributes: lactones (fruity), pyrazines (nutty, roasted), esters (sweet, aniseed), terpenes (minty), ketones (buttery), aldehydes (malty, chocolate-like), alcohols (floral), and fatty acids (cheesy, buttery) (Figure 3). These compounds interact synergistically, and their contributions to flavour perception depend on both their concentrations relative to sensory thresholds and their interactions within the complex meat matrix. It is also important to distinguish between bioactive peptides generated through substrate protein hydrolysis during fermentation and ribosomally synthesised beneficial peptides produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). While bioactive peptides primarily confer health-related benefits, they may also indirectly influence flavour complexity by modulating precursor availability and taste attributes such as umami and bitterness [47].
Microbial fermentation plays a decisive role in directing and accelerating flavour-forming pathways in fermented meat products. Complex microbial consortia-dominated by LAB, Staphylococci, yeasts, and moulds—regulate flavour development through their metabolic activities and enzymatic repertoires [9]. Among these groups, LAB are particularly important not only as starter cultures but also as drivers of acidification, proteolysis, and metabolite production, thereby shaping both flavour and texture. LAB comprise diverse genera, including Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Carnobacterium, Tetrogenococcus, Leuconostoc, and Oenococcus [9]. Through carbohydrate fermentation, LAB produce organic acids and volatile compounds such as diacetyl, acetoin, and acetic acid, which contribute buttery and acidic notes while simultaneously influencing microbial succession and enzyme activity. Acidification also promotes protein gelation and enhances the physicochemical properties of fermented meats.
Other microbial groups contribute complementary metabolic functions. Staphylococci are particularly associated with amino acid catabolism and ester formation, while yeasts and moulds contribute to redox balance, lipid metabolism, and the synthesis of higher alcohols, esters, and sulphur-containing volatiles. These microbial-driven reactions transform amino acids into aldehydes, alcohols, and acids via transamination, decarboxylation, and reduction pathways, and convert free fatty acids into aroma-active lipid-derived volatiles.
Strain selection and co-culture design are therefore critical determinants of flavour outcome. Microorganisms differ markedly in their enzymatic capabilities and volatile production profiles. For example, co-culturing Staphylococcus xylosus—known for ester synthesis—with Lactobacillus sakei, which enhances amino acid degradation, increases the formation of aldehydes and short-chain esters associated with cooked meat aromas [48]. Multi-strain fermentations further promote synergistic interactions, yielding sulphur-containing and nitrogen-containing volatiles that enhance umami and roasted flavour notes [49].
Environmental and process parameters strongly modulate microbial metabolism and flavour generation. Temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and salt concentration influence microbial growth, enzyme expression, and substrate utilisation. Moderate fermentation temperatures (20–30 °C), controlled acidification, and NaCl levels of approximately 2–3% support balanced microbial succession, optimising both LAB activity and staphylococcal enzyme function [50]. Inoculation strategy-simultaneous versus sequential-further determines microbial dominance and flavour trajectory [51, 52].
Post-fermentation processes, including curing and ageing, allow continued microbial and chemical transformations. Extended maturation promotes slow lipid oxidation, esterification, and accumulation of sulphur- and nitrogen-containing compounds, deepening savoury and umami characteristics. Stepwise fermentation strategies, in which LAB precede yeast inoculation, enable staged flavour development, from peptide and acid formation to the synthesis of complex volatiles [52, 53].
Beyond traditional approaches, metabolic engineering and substrate optimisation offer emerging strategies to intensify microbial flavour production. Overexpression of enzymes such as branched-chain aminotransferases or decarboxylases can enhance aldehyde and sulphur compound formation, while increasing acetyltransferase or alcohol dehydrogenase activity in yeasts boosts ester and higher alcohol synthesis. Supplementation with amino acids, fatty acids, or reducing sugars further enriches precursor pools and stimulates Strecker and Maillard reactions, reinforcing roasted and meaty flavour notes [50].
By clearly distinguishing the general biochemical origins of flavour compounds from the specific contributions of microbial fermentation, it becomes evident that microorganisms act as both catalysts and regulators of flavour complexity in fermented meat products. Strategic integration of strain selection, co-culture design, environmental control, and targeted metabolic interventions enables precise tuning of flavour pathways. These principles not only enhance traditional meat fermentations but also offer powerful tools for developing fermented plant-based and hybrid meat analogues with authentic, predictable sensory profiles.
The development of plant-based meat (PBM) represents a significant shift in food innovation, driven by the growing demand for sustainable, ethical, and health-conscious protein alternatives [54]. Over the past decade, technological advancements have enabled the production of increasingly sophisticated meat analogues that closely mimic the texture, flavour, appearance, and nutritional value of conventional meat [55]. This innovation is not only reshaping consumer markets but also redefining the relationship between food, biotechnology, and sustainability (Table 4).
The increasing global demand for sustainable, health-conscious food has accelerated the development of plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), designed to mimic conventional meat in taste, texture, and nutritional profile while addressing environmental and ethical concerns associated with animal agriculture [54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Growing interest in vegan, vegetarian, and flexitarian diets has significantly influenced the expansion of the PBMA market. The global market for plant-based meat is projected to grow from $4.6 billion in 2018 to approximately $85 billion by 2030, reflecting a consumer shift toward sustainability and wellness-oriented food choices [57].
| Development Stage | Key Component/Technology | Function | Aplication | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Raw Material Selection | Plant proteins (soy, pea, wheat, rice, mung bean, etc.) | Primary protein source to replicate meat texture and nutritional profile | Soy protein isolate, pea protein concentrate | [54] |
| Functional Ingredient Addition | Binders, emulsifiers, fibres, fats, starches | Improve texture, moisture retention, mouthfeel, and cooking behavior | Methylcellulose, carrageenan, coconut oil | [55] |
| Flavour Engineering | Flavour precursors, natural flavours, yeast extracts | Mimic meat aroma and taste (umami, grilled notes, fatty flavours) | Heme analogues (e.g., soy leghemoglobin), yeast extract | [56] |
| Texturization | Extrusion (high-moisture or low-moisture), shear-cell technology | Create fibrous, meat-like structure | High-moisture extrusion for chicken/beef texture | [57] |
| Color Development | Natural pigments, Maillard-reactive compounds | Simulate meat color before and after cooking | Beet juice, tomato lycopene, caramel color | [54, 58] |
| Fat Mimicking | Plant-based oils, structured fats | Replicate juiciness and mouthfeel of animal fat | Coconut oil, canola oil, encapsulated fat | [55, 56] |
| Nutritional Fortification | Added vitamins, minerals (B12, iron, zinc) | Improve nutritional equivalence to animal meat | Iron salts, vitamin B12, calcium | [54, 57] |
| Formulation and Blending | Ingredient optimization using food science and AI tools | Balance texture, flavour, nutrition, and stability | Precision fermentation for custom ingredients | [57, 58] |
| Processing and Shaping | Forming (e.g., patties, nuggets, strips), cooking adaptation | Deliver desired final product format and cooking properties | Burger patties, sausages, kebabs | [54, 55] |
| Packaging and Preservation | Modified atmosphere packaging, natural preservatives | Maintain shelf-life, freshness, and sensory attributes | Nitrogen flushing, vinegar, rosemary extract | [56] |
At the core of plant-based meat development is the strategic selection and functionalization of plant proteins, such as soy, pea, wheat gluten, rice, and mung bean [54, 56]. These proteins are selected for their ability to form fibrous, meat-like textures when processed using texturisation technologies such as high-moisture extrusion or shear-cell processing. The goal is to replicate the chewiness and muscle fibre structure of meat, which is critical for consumer acceptance [55, 57]. PBMAs utilise plant-derived proteins such as soy, peas, and wheat, which require fewer natural resources and result in substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions than traditional meat production. Animal-based meat accounts for around 15% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and requires intensive land and water use. In contrast, PBMAs offer health benefits, including lower saturated fat content, the absence of cholesterol, and higher levels of fibre, vitamins, and essential amino acids. Notably, soy-based proteins possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds linked to reduced risks of obesity and metabolic disorders [54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
The successful development of PBMAs depends heavily on advanced processing technologies that replicate meat's structural and sensory characteristics. High-moisture extrusion, for instance, is widely used to generate fibrous, meat-like textures [55]. The addition of hydrocolloids, oils, and binders such as carrageenan and xanthan gum enhances juiciness and mouthfeel [54]. Flavour development is another critical factor, with ingredients like yeast extracts, miso, and spices contributing to savoury, umami-rich profiles that appeal to meat-eating consumers [58]. Maillard reaction techniques further enhance the complexity of PBMA flavours, emulating the taste of cooked meat [56].
Despite these advances, challenges remain. Conventional meat continues to hold cultural significance, and consumer resistance persists due to differences in taste, texture, and familiarity [58]. Additional concerns involve allergenicity and the inclusion of genetically modified ingredients in some PBMAs [54]. Addressing these issues will require continued product innovation and targeted consumer education to support PBMA as viable, acceptable meat alternatives.
Plant-based meat products typically exhibit flavour profiles dominated by vegetal, beany, cereal-like, and sometimes bitter or astringent notes, which primarily originate from plant proteins, lipids, and minor phytochemicals [54]. Common aroma-active compounds include aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones derived from the oxidation of unsaturated plant lipids, as well as sulphur-containing compounds and residual volatiles associated with legume proteins [55]. Although Maillard reactions during cooking can generate roasted and savoury notes, the relative scarcity of certain amino acids, reducing sugars, and heme-associated catalysts limits the formation of characteristic meat-like heterocyclic compounds, such as pyrazines and sulphur-containing volatiles [56]. Consequently, flavour masking, addition of reaction flavours, and fermentation are often required to reduce undesirable notes and enhance overall acceptability [54, 56].
In contrast, animal meat develops a more complex and balanced aroma profile during cooking due to the presence of muscle-specific precursors, including abundant free amino acids, peptides, phospholipids, and iron-containing compounds [54, 57]. These components promote synergistic Maillard and lipid oxidation pathways, leading to the formation of key meat aroma compounds, including alkylpyrazines, thiols, thiazoles, and Strecker aldehydes [54, 56, 58]. Structural differences further contribute to sensory divergence; the muscle matrix and intramuscular fat distribution in animal meat facilitate controlled aroma release and flavour persistence during mastication, whereas plant-based matrices often exhibit faster volatile release and reduced flavour retention [54, 55, 56, 57]. Together, these compositional and structural distinctions explain the persistent challenges in fully replicating the depth, continuity, and authenticity of animal meat aroma in plant-based meat analogues [55, 56]. These persistent compositional and structural differences between plant-based and animal meat underscore the need for cultured meat strategies and bioinformatics-guided flavour design to more precisely control precursor composition, metabolic pathways, and aroma profiles, thereby better replicating authentic meat flavour [54, 55, 56, 57, 58].
One of the most significant challenges in PBM development is flavour replication. Real meat flavour results from complex reactions, primarily the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation during cooking [54]. To overcome this, food scientists and biotechnologists are incorporating flavour precursors, yeast extracts, and plant-based heme analogues such as soy leghemoglobin to mimic the umami and iron-rich characteristics of meat [55]. Additionally, fermentation-based technologies are being explored to generate authentic meaty flavours from microbial or enzymatic pathways. Equally important is the colouration and fat mimicking in PBM. Natural colourants, such as beet juice or lycopene, are used to simulate the red colour of raw meat and the browning effect during cooking [57]. Structured plant oils, such as coconut or canola oil, are incorporated to provide juiciness and mouthfeel comparable to animal fat, enhancing the overall sensory experience [56, 57, 58].
Another key area of innovation lies in nutritional enhancement. Because some plant proteins lack certain essential amino acids and micronutrients found in animal products, PBM is often fortified with vitamin B12, iron, and zinc to achieve a nutritional profile comparable to or superior to that of animal products. Formulation science, supported by AI-driven ingredient optimisation, is increasingly used to balance nutrition, texture, flavour, and stability. Despite these advances, plant-based meat still faces challenges, including consumer scepticism, concerns about ingredient labelling, and limited processing transparency [55, 56, 57].
Additionally, the reliance on highly processed ingredients in some plant-based meat (PBM) products has raised concerns regarding health, sustainability, and consumer acceptance [55]. Many PBMs depend on refined protein isolates, added flavourings, colourants, and texturising agents, which can increase processing intensity and energy use while complicating label transparency [56]. From a sensory perspective, extensive processing may be required to mask off-flavours arising from legume proteins or lipid oxidation products, often by adding reaction flavours or encapsulated aroma compounds [57]. Addressing these challenges necessitates continued research into cleaner-label formulations, such as mildly processed protein concentrates, fermentation-derived flavour enhancers, and naturally occurring precursors that promote Maillard and Strecker reactions during cooking [55, 57]. Furthermore, optimising processing strategies—such as controlled fermentation, enzymatic modification, and low-shear structuring-offers opportunities to improve aroma complexity and authenticity while reducing ingredient complexity, production costs, and environmental impact [56, 58]. The development of plant-based meat is a rapidly evolving field at the intersection of food science, biotechnology, and sustainability. With continued innovation, especially in flavour engineering, protein texturisation, and fermentation technologies, PBM holds great promise for reshaping global food systems and reducing the environmental footprint of protein consumption.
Cultured meat, also known as lab-grown or cell-based meat, has emerged as a transformative innovation in the quest for sustainable, ethical, and high-quality protein sources (Table 5). While the foundational concept has existed for decades, recent scientific and technological advances have accelerated its development from laboratory prototypes to a potential commercial reality. The current wave of innovation spans multiple dimensions, including cell biology, tissue engineering, bioprocessing, and food science [37, 59].
One of the foundational breakthroughs lies in cell source optimisation, where researchers have successfully isolated and expanded stem cells such as muscle satellite cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). These cells offer long-term self-renewal and the ability to differentiate into multiple meat-relevant lineages (muscle, fat, connective tissue), essential for building structured, functional meat products [60, 61]. Equally important is the development of scaffolding systems that mimic the extracellular matrix and support 3D tissue formation. Advances in edible, biodegradable, and plant-derived scaffolds (e.g., collagen, alginate, mycelium) have enabled the creation of fibrous structures with textures similar to conventional meat. The use of 3D printing and biocompatible hydrogels further enhances precision in meat structuring and customization [37, 59, 60].
| Technological Area | Key Advances | Purpose / Contribution | Examples / Applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cell Source Optimization | Use of stem cells (e.g., satellite cells, iPSCs, MSCs) | Enables stable, renewable source for muscle and fat cell proliferation | Bovine satellite cells for beef; iPSCs for multi-lineage potential | [37] |
| Scaffold Development | Edible, biodegradable, or 3D-printed scaffolds (e.g., collagen, alginate, mycelium) | Provides structural support for cell attachment and tissue formation | 3D plant-based scaffolds for meat texture mimicry | [60] |
| Culture Media Innovation | Serum-free and cost-reduced media using growth factor alternatives | Reduces production cost, improves scalability, and addresses ethical concerns | Recombinant albumin, plant-derived growth factors | [61] |
| Bioreactor Design | Development of scalable, perfusion, and stirred-tank bioreactors | Enables large-scale cell proliferation and tissue maturation | Perfusion bioreactors for oxygen/nutrient delivery | [62] |
| Co-culture Systems | Muscle + fat + connective tissue cell integration | Improves texture, flavour, and mouthfeel by mimicking native meat tissue | Tri-culture systems producing structured beef-like products | [59] |
| Tissue Engineering Techniques | Application of mechanical, electrical, or biochemical stimuli | Enhances muscle fibre alignment, maturation, and flavour precursor development | Electrical stimulation to promote myotube formation | [63] |
| Flavour Development | Metabolic pathway optimisation and precursor supplementation | Supports the formation of meaty aroma and taste during cooking | Supplementation with amino acids and lipids to improve Maillard reaction outcomes | [64] |
| Quality & Safety Assessment | Integration of biosensors and omics tools | Ensures food safety, consistency, and regulatory compliance | Metabolomics for flavour profiling; real-time contamination sensors | [65] |
| Regulatory and Labelling Innovations | Standardisation of definitions and safety testing protocols | Prepares cultured meat for market approval and consumer acceptance | FDA & EFSA safety assessment frameworks | [66, 67] |
Another major hurdle in scaling cultured meat is the reliance on traditional, expensive, and animal-derived culture media, particularly fetal bovine serum (FBS). Innovations in serum-free media, including the use of recombinant proteins, plant-derived growth factors, and food-grade additives, are significantly reducing costs and addressing ethical concerns associated with the use of serum [37, 60]. The advancement of bioreactor systems from bench-scale stirred tanks to industrial-scale perfusion bioreactors has been vital for scaling production. These systems facilitate controlled exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products and enable real-time process monitoring. Moreover, co-culture techniques, which combine muscle, adipose, and connective tissue cells, are helping researchers recreate the complex composition of whole cuts of meat, enhancing texture, juiciness, and flavour [59, 61, 62].
Flavour development, often overlooked in early cultured meat research, is now a growing area of focus. By optimising metabolic pathways in cultured cells and supplementing the media with flavour precursors such as amino acids and fatty acids, researchers aim to recreate the complex reactions (e.g., the Maillard reaction) responsible for authentic meat aroma and taste during cooking [45, 62].
Meanwhile, tissue engineering techniques, such as electrical and mechanical stimulation, are being applied to induce myofiber alignment, muscle contraction, and improved maturation of cultured tissues. These methods not only enhance structural fidelity but also contribute to functional properties such as tenderness and chewiness. Finally, quality assurance and regulatory readiness are being addressed through the integration of omics technologies (e.g., metabolomics, transcriptomics) and biosensor-based monitoring to ensure safety, consistency, and compliance. Collaboration among scientific institutions, startups, and regulatory bodies such as the FDA and EFSA is advancing frameworks for the approval and labelling of cultured meat, paving the way for consumer-facing products [67, 68].
Cultured meat (CM) offers a sustainable alternative to conventional meat by cultivating animal cells in vitro through cellular agriculture and tissue engineering [60]. Key steps include cell isolation, scaffold fabrication, and bioreactor cultivation, using materials like collagen, gelatin, or plant proteins, with support from techniques such as 3D printing and electrospinning [59, 60, 61, 62]. Despite advancements, CM faces major challenges in replicating meat flavour due to differences in amino acid composition and the complexity of flavour compounds formed via Maillard reactions and lipid oxidation [41, 64]. Synthetic additives, such as furfuryl mercaptan, have been used but are limited by volatility during long culture periods [41, 65, 66]. Recent approaches focus on designing scaffolds that release flavour during cooking, simulating thermal reactions found in real meat [37].
| Key Amino Acid / Precursor in Raw Material | Typical Abundance in Animal Muscle | Relative Abundance in Current Cultured Meat Systems | Major Aroma Compounds Formed After Cooking | Sensory Notes Generated | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cysteine and Methionine (sulfur amino acids) | High in myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins | Often lower due to simplified media formulations | Thiols, sulphides, thiazoles, methional | Meaty, savory, cooked-meat character | [37, 41] |
| Lysine | Abundant | Variable to low | Alkylpyrazines, Strecker aldehydes | Roasted, browned, grilled aromas | [37, 64] |
| Glycine | Moderate to high | Generally comparable | Methyl- and dimethyl-pyrazines | Sweet-roasted, caramelized notes | [37, 65] |
| Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine (branched-chain amino acids) | High | Frequently reduced | 2- and 3-methylbutanal, isovaleraldehyde | Malty, fatty, intense cooked aromas | [37, 66] |
| Proline | Present in connective tissue proteins | Usually low (limited collagen synthesis) | Pyrroles and additional pyrazines | Toasted, nutty complexity | [37, 59] |
| Glutamic acid and Aspartic acid | High | Comparable, but largely bound in proteins | Precursors for umami-enhancing peptides and aldehydes | Brothy, umami foundation (indirect aroma support) | [37, 42] |
| Phenylalanine and Tyrosine | Moderate | Variable | Phenylacetaldehyde, benzaldehyde | Honey-like, floral-sweet nuances | [37, 59] |
| Histidine | High in muscle | Often low | Imidazoles and pyrazines | Roasted, beef-like intensity | [37, 64] |
| Tryptophan | Low to moderate | Generally low | Indoles and skatole (trace levels) | Depth and species-specific aftertaste | |
| Lipid-associated amino acids (overall protein-bound AA) interacting with phospholipids | Balanced with intramuscular fat | CM frequently lacks complex lipids | Aldehydes (hexanal, nonanal), ketones, alcohols | Fatty, juicy, species-typical aromas | [37, 65] |
Table 6 highlights that the authentic cooked-meat aroma is not produced solely by Maillard chemistry, but by the synergy between a muscle-derived amino acid pool and a complex lipid matrix. Because many CM systems are grown in optimised, nutritionally simplified culture media, the resulting tissues may contain adequate total protein but lack the balanced distribution of free sulphur amino acids, peptides, and phospholipids required to generate characteristic heterocyclic compounds [37, 41]. The frequent absence of collagen-rich connective tissue further reduces proline- and glycine-derived reaction pathways, limiting roasted and nutty complexity [37, 41, 65]. For these reasons, synthetic additives such as furfuryl mercaptan or pre-formed flavours have been tested [37, 41, 64]. Still, their effectiveness is limited by their high volatility and instability during prolonged cell culture. Emerging research, therefore, focuses on bioinformatics-guided adjustment of precursor composition and the development of scaffolds enriched with natural amino acid and lipid precursors that remain stable during cultivation and are released only during thermal processing, thereby more closely simulating the flavour-generation mechanisms of real meat [65, 66].
Flavour development is also being improved through media optimisation strategies such as DOE, ANN, and GA to promote metabolic pathways that yield flavour precursors [67]. Wali et al. [67] showed that reducing FBS in media significantly lowered environmental impacts, while alternative protein hydrolysates improved sustainability metrics. Scaffold innovations have also enhanced CM texture and flavour. Lee et al. [69] used gelatin–alginate scaffolds to promote myogenesis and adipogenesis, while flavour-switchable scaffolds enabled the release of aroma compounds upon heating [37]. Li et al. [62] developed multilayered CM with aligned gelatin–soymilk scaffolds, co-culturing muscle and fat cells to improve flavour and structure.
The convergence of bioinformatics and artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionising multiple aspects of food science, particularly in the development of flavour systems, alternative proteins, and cultured meat. These technologies offer powerful tools for understanding complex biological pathways, optimising formulations, predicting sensory outcomes, and accelerating product development.
9.1 Bioinformatics applicationsBioinformatics facilitates the analysis of genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data to uncover the genes, enzymes, and metabolic pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of essential flavour compounds. In the context of cultured meat and flavour biotechnology, bioinformatic tools are employed to map pathways of flavour precursors, such as those involved in sulphur amino acid metabolism and lipid oxidation; identify biomarkers linked to flavour in cell lines and tissues; and support strain selection and the metabolic engineering of microbes for precision fermentation. For instance, comparative genomic analysis can be used to identify microbial strains with inherent capabilities to produce aroma-active compounds such as pyrazines, esters, and thiols. In cultured meat, transcriptomic profiling of muscle and fat cells under different culture conditions can help pinpoint key regulatory genes involved in the accumulation of flavour compounds and tissue maturation [69].
Bioinformatics enables the analysis of microbial genomes to identify genes involved in flavour biosynthesis, including those encoding key enzymes and pathways for product degradation. This supports the selection or engineering of microbes to produce specific flavour profiles. Additionally, bioinformatics facilitates metabolic pathway reconstruction and manages large datasets involving microbial strains, enzymes, and flavour compounds, thus enabling more precise control of flavour formation [69]. Bioinformatics and AI tools support the identification and optimisation of flavour-biosynthesis pathways and precursor systems, enabling quantitative benchmarking of designed flavours against conventional meat. Reported metrics of aroma similarity achieved through bioinformatics-guided approaches are summarised in Table 7.
| Bioinformatics-Guided Approach | Meat Reference Used for Benchmarking | Evaluation Method | Reported Quantitative Metric | Degree of Similarity Achieved | Key Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Genome mining to select flavour-producing microbes | Cooked beef model system | GC-MS marker matching | Percentage of shared key volatiles | 65% overlap in major aroma-active compounds | Lacks data on minor heterocyclic compounds |
| AI-optimised amino acid and lipid precursor ratios | Grilled chicken flavour | Aroma recombination with GC-O | Sensory similarity score (9-point scale) | 7.2 vs 8.6 for animal meat control | Limited panel size and product-specific tuning |
| Metabolic pathway reconstruction for engineered yeast strains | Pan-fried pork aroma | OAV (Odour Activity Value) comparison | Sum of matched OAVs | 60–75% of the target aroma intensity was reproduced | Incomplete aroma-threshold databases |
| Machine-learning prediction of thermal reaction products | Cooked beef patties | Instrumental fingerprint analysis | Cosine similarity of volatile spectra | 0.78 compared with the animal meat fingerprint | Does not capture release dynamics |
| Selection of microbes based on enzyme-encoding genes (lipases, proteases) | Mixed meat products | Dynamic volatile-release analysis | Concentration difference after cooking | Major compounds within ±20% of real meat levels | Temporal profile is still divergent |
| Database-driven design of reaction flavours for PBM | Cooked beef analogues | Consumer acceptance testing | Preference parity (%) | 70% consumer parity with optimised formulation | Authenticity is judged only indirectly |
Source: [69]
Table 7 demonstrates that bioinformatics-guided systems can achieve substantial, yet partial, reproduction of conventional meat aroma, typically capturing around two-thirds of the major volatile markers and generating high sensory resemblance when evaluated through aroma recombination or AI-optimised formulations. These quantitative outcomes confirm the value of bioinformatics in directing microbial selection and metabolic engineering, yet also highlight that further progress depends on more comprehensive datasets linking genomes, metabolic pathways, and holistic post-cooking aroma fingerprints.
9.2 Artificial intelligence applicationsArtificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning are transforming flavour development by predicting new flavours based on microbial species, precursors, fermentation conditions, and media composition, optimising fermentation by analysing complex variables (e.g., substrate levels, microbial consortia, enzymatic activity), interpreting sensory data to understand consumer preferences and refine formulations and designing new flavour profiles via large-scale data mining. In the meat flavour industry, AI has been applied to cultured and plant-based meats for predicting flavour profiles, volatile compound content, roasting methods, and sensory attributes. Specific implementations include: mutton adulteration classification [70], pork preference prediction [71], lamb shashlik aroma analysis [72, 73], umami compound screening [74], and meat quality assessments [75, 76].
Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) have become valuable tools for interpreting complex, multidimensional datasets in flavour science, and detailed aroma analyses strongly enhance their effectiveness [74]. In cultured meat systems, instrumental aroma evaluation methods—such as GC-MS, GC-O, and dynamic volatile-release profiling—provide essential quantitative fingerprints that guide product design at multiple stages [75]. Aroma analyses enable the identification of key marker compounds responsible for species-specific cooked-meat character, allowing developers to benchmark CM prototypes against conventional meat references [77]. These data support the rational adjustment of culture media composition to enrich critical precursors, including sulphur amino acids and phospholipids, which are necessary for the generation of meaty thiols, pyrazines, and Strecker aldehydes during cooking [74, 77]. Furthermore, aroma measurements inform the engineering of scaffold materials and cellular structures that retain stable flavour precursors throughout cultivation and release them only upon thermal processing. Time-resolved aroma analyses also reveal how reaction kinetics and matrix breakdown influence the sequence and persistence of retronasal aromas, providing targets for optimising fat incorporation, oxygen diffusion, and heat-transfer properties [75, 77]. By integrating these analytical outputs with AI/ML models, researchers can more accurately predict how modifications in growth conditions, tissue maturation, and post-cooking processes affect perceived flavour, thereby enabling a more systematic and quantitatively driven design of cultured meat products [71, 72].
Key applications include predicting flavour evolution during cooking or processing, optimising ingredient combinations to enhance specific sensory characteristics, and mapping consumer preferences using demographic and sensory data [73, 74]. Neural networks trained on sensory profiles can predict optimal combinations of plant proteins, fats, and flavour precursors to replicate the taste of beef or chicken. Additionally, reinforcement learning algorithms can propose innovative formulations for plant-based or hybrid meat products, significantly reducing the time and cost associated with traditional trial-and-error research and development [75, 76].
In precision fermentation, AI-driven bioinformatics platforms are used to design synthetic pathways for microbial production of flavour molecules such as heme analogues, methyl ketones, or sulphur volatiles [70, 71]. Tools such as genome-scale metabolic modelling help optimise metabolic flux toward target compounds, increasing efficiency and yield. Similarly, in cultured meat, AI tools can model cell behaviour under different bioreactor conditions, optimise nutrient supply strategies, and predict flavour and texture outcomes based on input variables such as scaffold type, cell density, and maturation time [73, 77]. The emergence of sensory informatics, the integration of instrumental flavour data (GC-MS, LC-MS) with human sensory panel data, has become increasingly important. AI can identify which chemical compounds most strongly correlate with desirable flavour perceptions, aiding in targeted flavour design [74, 76].
The application of bioinformatics and AI is rapidly transforming food and flavour research from a trial-based approach to a data-driven, predictive, and highly efficient process. These tools are not only enhancing our understanding of complex flavour systems but also enabling tailored product development in plant-based, fermented, and cultured meat platforms. As these technologies mature, their integration will be essential for creating next-generation foods that are nutritious, sustainable, and sensorially appealing.
The development of authentic meaty flavour remains one of the most complex and critical challenges in food innovation, particularly for plant-based and cultured meat products (Table 8). While significant strides have been made in mimicking the texture and nutritional content of meat, flavour replication still lags due to the intricate and multifactorial nature of meat's sensory profile. Addressing this gap is essential to improve consumer acceptance and bridge the sensory divide between conventional and alternative proteins [78].
| Category | Challenges | Future Opportunities |
|---|---|---|
| Flavour Precursors | Limited availability of key precursors (e.g., cysteine, creatine, nucleotides) in plant/cell matrices | Biosynthesis of flavour precursors via precision fermentation or metabolic engineering |
| Complex Flavour Chemistry | Difficulty replicating complex Maillard and lipid oxidation reactions | Development of custom enzymatic systems to catalyse key flavour-generating reactions |
| Ingredient Limitations | Off-flavours from plant proteins (e.g., beany, grassy, bitter notes) | Ingredient purification and use of masked or neutral protein bases |
| Consumer Sensory Expectations | Cultural and individual variation in meaty flavour preferences | AI-driven flavour design and consumer-informed sensory modelling |
| Processing Constraints | High-temperature processing may degrade desirable flavour compounds | Optimisation of mild or controlled thermal processes and encapsulation of flavour compounds |
| Regulatory Barriers | Restrictions on novel flavouring agents or GM-derived compounds | GRAS certification and development of natural, clean-label flavour sources |
| Cellular Limitations (Cultured Meat) | Limited flavour development in vitro due to immature fat and muscle cell profiles | Co-culture systems and organoid models to enhance lipid metabolism and flavour compound generation |
| Scalability and Cost | High cost of producing specialty flavour molecules at scale | Microbial fermentation and upcycling of agro-industrial byproducts as cost-effective flavour sources |
Despite progress, meat flavour research faces persistent challenges, especially in decoding the complex interactions of volatile and non-volatile compounds. The Maillard reaction, lipid oxidation, and amino acid degradation are key processes, but isolating the compounds responsible for specific sensory traits remains difficult [78]. Although tools like GC-MS and GC-O have advanced compound identification, understanding molecular-level mechanisms still requires deeper investigation. Meaty flavour results from a combination of volatile and non-volatile compounds generated through the Maillard reaction, Strecker degradation, and lipid oxidation during cooking. These reactions involve a precise balance of amino acids, reducing sugars, nucleotides, and fatty acids many of which are either absent or present at suboptimal levels in plant or cultured matrices [79].
In plant-based systems, the limited presence of specific precursors (e.g., creatine, cysteine, inosine monophosphate) hinders the formation of authentic meat-like aromas. Similarly, in cultured meat, the metabolic activity of in vitro cells may not yet replicate the full biochemistry of animal tissue, leading to underdeveloped flavour profiles. For plant-based meats, issues like “beany” or “earthy” off-notes from plant proteins hinder flavour replication. Fermentation, precision flavour modulation, and natural enhancers are needed to address these drawbacks [80]. For cultured meats, flavour engineering through metabolic cell design shows promise, but regulatory concerns and consumer acceptance remain major barriers [78].
Consumer perception of meat flavour varies by cultural background, cooking style, and meat type (beef, pork, poultry). Designing a universal “meaty” flavour that satisfies diverse palates is an ongoing sensory and marketing challenge [80]. Consumer taste expectations are another critical factor—more than 53% prioritise flavour in meat alternatives. Many analogues fall short in mimicking the complex interactions found in native meat proteins, such as myofibrillar binding with flavour molecules [81]. Processing methods like extrusion can also degrade desirable aroma compounds.
The use of genetically engineered microbes, flavour precursors, and fermentation-derived compounds is often constrained by regulatory frameworks and public perception, especially when using novel flavour compounds that have not yet been classified as Generally Recognised as Safe (GRAS). High-temperature extrusion and other processing methods used to create meat-like textures in plant-based meat can generate off-flavours (e.g., beany, grassy, bitter notes) that interfere with the desired meaty aroma.
Nonetheless, future opportunities are substantial. Integration of AI and big data analytics can optimise formulation and flavour prediction. Tools like electronic noses (e-noses), especially when paired with IoT systems, offer real-time quality control. Microbial biotransformation stands out as a sustainable approach to naturally enhance umami and meaty flavours, reducing reliance on synthetic additives. Collaborative efforts by major flavour companies such as IFF and Givaudan also aim to advance research on protein-flavour interactions. A multidisciplinary approach combining biotechnology, sensory science, and data-driven analytics will be essential to meet the growing demand for sustainable, flavourful meat and alternatives.
Advances in synthetic biology and precision fermentation offer the potential to produce key flavour molecules such as thiazoles, pyrazines, and sulphur-containing volatiles in a scalable and sustainable manner using engineered microbes. Omics technologies can elucidate the biochemical pathways responsible for meat flavour generation, providing insights into the design of metabolic routes in plant- or cell-based systems. Tailored enzyme cocktails can be developed to selectively release or transform precursors in raw ingredients, enhancing Maillard reaction efficiency and flavour development during cooking.
Combining plant-based matrices with cultured fat or fermented flavour modules can yield more complete and realistic flavour profiles, leveraging the strengths of multiple technologies. Artificial intelligence and machine learning models can predict flavour outcomes, optimize ingredient combinations, and simulate consumer preferences, accelerating the development of next-generation meat analogues. Future research will also prioritize natural, label-friendly flavour solutions, such as fermentation-derived umami boosters or naturally occurring volatiles, to meet consumer demands for transparency and health. While replicating meaty flavour remains a formidable challenge, biotechnology, sensory science, and data-driven innovation are converging to create novel pathways for authentic flavour development. Continued interdisciplinary research and collaboration between academia, industry, and regulatory bodies will be crucial to unlock the full potential of meaty flavour replication in sustainable food systems.
Flavour remains a critical barrier and an opportunity in advancing plant-based and cultured meat products. As consumers increasingly seek sustainable and ethical alternatives to conventional meat, achieving authentic, appealing flavour profiles is essential to ensure widespread acceptance and repeat consumption. Flavour biotechnology offers powerful solutions by leveraging enzymatic processing, microbial fermentation, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology to replicate or enhance the complex aroma and taste characteristics of real meat. In plant-based systems, biotechnological innovations have enabled the development of meat-like flavour precursors, improved fermentation-based flavour generation, and reduced off-notes associated with certain plant proteins. In cultured meat, flavour biotechnology can support the metabolic maturation of muscle and fat cells, enhance the biosynthesis of flavour compounds, and bridge the sensory gap between lab-grown and traditionally farmed meat. While significant progress has been made, challenges remain, particularly in replicating the multi-layered flavour chemistry of meat, navigating regulatory frameworks, and meeting consumer expectations for clean-label, natural ingredients. Future research should focus on multi-omic integration, AI-driven flavour prediction, hybrid systems, and scalable production methods to refine flavour development in alternative protein systems. Meaty flavour is a complex sensory phenomenon influenced by a combination of chemical, olfactory, and gustatory factors, with key contributions from the Maillard reaction, lipid oxidation, and VOCs. While advancements in biotechnology and analytical methods, such as GC-MS, have enhanced our ability to replicate and study these flavours, significant challenges persist in fully understanding the biochemical mechanisms and in replicating authentic meaty profiles in alternative proteins. Continued interdisciplinary research is crucial to overcoming these hurdles and to improve the sensory qualities of both traditional and alternative meat products to meet growing consumer demand. In conclusion, flavour biotechnology plays a pivotal role in transforming the future of food. By enabling realistic, enjoyable, and sustainable meat alternatives, it holds the key to accelerating the global shift toward more resilient and responsible food systems.
