Clonostachys: Ecology, Multitrophic Biocontrol Mechanisms, and Applications in Sustainable Crop Protection

Abstract

Clonostachys species are functionally diverse filamentous fungi with strong potential for sustainable crop protection. They suppress plant pathogens, plant-parasitic nematodes, and insect herbivores, while also promoting plant growth. These fungi are widely distributed in soils and plant-associated habitats, reflecting their ecological adaptability and multitrophic interactions. Despite their promising agricultural potential, the practical use of Clonostachys species as microbial agents remains limited. This review summarizes current knowledge on the taxonomy, ecology, and functional diversity of Clonostachys species, with emphasis on the mechanisms underlying their biocontrol activity. We also discuss their multitrophic interactions, potential risks of opportunistic pathogenicity, and key challenges for practical application. Finally, future perspectives are presented to support the development of reliable Clonostachys-based strategies for sustainable agriculture.