調査報告
The Experience of Becoming a Refugee: Evacuation and Resettlement of Afghanistan Citizens in Japan
2024 年 2 巻 p. 89-101
詳細
2024 年 2 巻 p. 89-101
Japan has been one of the major donors for the reconstruction of Afghanistan over the past 20 years, and has also developed broad relationships with the country through international cooperation projects, while accepting students from Afghanistan in various fields. In the aftermath of the dramatic political change that took place on 15 August 2021, it became clear that government employees, civil society workers and former international students were no longer able to utilize their expertise; and had additionally become the primary target of persecution due to their association with foreign countries including Japan. More than 800 people have been evacuated to Japan since that time, including former staff of the Japanese Embassy and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), former international students, and local staff of Japanese NGOs.
The purpose of this study is to identify the challenges of “refugees” in Japan by interviewing people who fled there following Afghanistan’s political upheaval. The interviews centered around three issues affecting interviewees’ lives: (1) their fear of persecution, (2) their experiences of migration to Japan, and (3) the challenges they have faced during resettlement. Although Japan ratified the UN Refugee Convention in 1981, its refugee recognition rate is less than 1%—a figure lagging far behind international standards. The authors believe that one reason for the low refugee recognition is that the “well-founded fear of persecution” stipulated by the International Refugee Convention is not fully understood by either Japan’s government or society. This study explores how evacuees from Afghanistan with diverse backgrounds experienced a clear fear of persecution, and also documents their experiences. By identifying the difficulties the evacuees have faced in resettling to Japan, the study additionally aims to contribute toward policy debates on the social integration of refugees.
The political upheaval in Afghanistan which took place in 2021 spawned a horrendous humanitarian crisis that occurred right in front of the international community. This situation came as a shock to the many Japanese who had been collaborating for the development of Afghanistan during the past two decades. Japan has been among the major donors to Afghanistan (next to the USA, Germany and UK), having implemented various development projects which provided some 700 billion yen. Following the Bonn Agreement1), the Japanese government organized a high-level conference in Tokyo in 2002 to discuss reconstruction and development in Afghanistan. Participants included Kofi Annan (UN Secretary-General), Hamid Karzai (Afghanistan Interim Authority, who later became Afghanistan’s President), Junichiro Koizumi (Former Prime Minister of Japan), and ministers/representatives from 61 countries and 21 international organizations. Japan was the co-chair of this conference, thereby demonstrating its strong commitment to Afghanistan’s reconstruction2).
Among the various development projects supporting Afghanistan’s reconstruction, one main pillar strengthening the country’s fledgling democratic government was the investment in human resource development. Following the Tokyo conference, Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) began providing scholarships in 2003 for students from Afghanistan to study in graduate schools in Japan. In 2011, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) launched a new scholarship program entitled PEACE3), which aimed to enhance expertise among Afghanistan’s government officials in order to run the country effectively. All JICA PEACE students came from the previous government, and after obtaining their degrees in Japan, they returned to Afghanistan and worked for the government during a period of time equivalent to their studies in Japan. More than 1,400 students from Afghanistan studied at the graduate level in Japan over the past 20 years, in the fields of engineering, agriculture, medicine, economics and law. In addition, JICA’s local counterparts and civil society organizations worked in Afghanistan to implement projects in areas including education, health, agriculture, gender and reproductive rights. Prior to the 2021 political change, therefore, a wide range of networks and partnerships existed between Afghanistan and Japan.
This situation changed drastically when the Taliban took over on 15 August 2021, just before the withdrawal of U.S. and other Western troops scheduled for 11 September. U.S. and NATO forces, along with foreign nationals and Afghanistan citizens who worked for Western countries, were forced to seek urgent evacuation as President Ashraf Ghani fled the country, the government collapsed, and the Taliban seized power. In an attempt to flee, thousands of people scrambled to the chaotic scene unfolding at Kabul Airport. This became the largest evacuation operation in history, involving more than 120,000 persons before the withdrawal of U.S. troops on 30 August4).
This political transformation threatened the lives of numerous citizens of Afghanistan who had relationships with foreign countries. Among those whose work was connected to Japan, former international students who had held high positions in the previous government or taught at universities were suspected of being “Japanese spies”. Many went into hiding, changing location frequently to avoid being identified during door-to-door searches. Some received death threats, others had family members who were abducted and killed, and still others fled for their lives and crossed borders without documents. In the aftermath of 15 August 2021, it became clear that government and civil society workers, as well as former international students, were no longer able to utilize their expertise; and had additionally become a primary target of persecution due to their association with foreign countries including Japan.
Action for Afghans (AFA)5), a civil society consortium comprising four NGOs involved in Afghanistan, conducted online research among evacuees from Afghanistan to Japan during January and February 2022—Japan’s first survey on Afghanistan evacuees. Among the total of 55 respondents from the 2022 survey, 95% said they would be persecuted if they returned to Afghanistan. The research identified five mutually-reinforcing reasons for such persecution: 1. having a relationship with foreign countries, including Japan; 2. past experience working for a former government; 3. belonging to an ethnic or religious minority group; 4. being a woman (especially ones with higher education or working in professional positions); and 5. believing in democratic values. Collectively, these reasons constitute a “well-founded fear of being persecuted” (Article 1, UN Refugee Convention), as per the definition of refugees under international law.
Encountering a humanitarian crisis wherein former development project partners and international students faced a life-threatening situation, the Japanese government did not seem to have a coherent policy to respond to this human catastrophe other than sending its Self-Defense Force troops. It was unable to fulfil even this mandate, however, due to a suicide bombing that took place near Kabul Airport.
In the aftermath of the U.S. withdrawal, land borders were tightened between Afghanistan and its neighboring countries, and commercial airlines temporarily stopped operating. Still, more than 800 citizens of Afghanistan arrived in Japan, sponsored either by the Japanese government or private entities. Those who evacuated from Afghanistan to Japan comprise at least three groups. First are those who were employed by the Japanese government as local staff of the Japanese Embassy and JICA, including employers of the Japanese consultants involved in ODA projects. This group was evacuated by the Japanese government between October to December 2021, with the help of the Qatar government. The second group consisted of former international students and the local staff of Japanese NGOs. This group hardly had any support from the government, and was evacuated through private sponsorship from universities and NGOs. The third group comprised the family members of Afghanistan citizens in Japan, who also experienced tremendous horror6). This group had literally no support from the Japanese government, being evacuated through regular channels and sponsored by their families.
All evacuees arriving from Afghanistan to Japan have had some previous relationship to the country, since they were required to have a sponsor to obtain their visas, which fell into the categories of student, worker, or family reunion7).
The purpose of this study is to identify the challenges of “refugees”8) in Japan by interviewing people who fled there after Afghanistan's political upheaval. The questions centered around three issues affecting interviewees’ lives: (1) their fear of persecution, (2) their experiences of migration to Japan, and (3) the challenges faced during resettlement. Although Japan ratified the UN Refugee Convention in 1981, its refugee recognition rate is less than 1%—a figure lagging far behind international standards. The authors believe that one reason for the low refugee recognition is that the “well-founded fear of persecution” stipulated by the International Refugee Convention is not fully understood by either Japan’s government or society. This study explores how evacuees from Afghanistan with diverse backgrounds experienced a clear fear of persecution. By documenting evacuees’ experiences and identifying the difficulties they have faced when resettling to Japan, the study also aims to contribute toward policy debates on the social integration of refugees.
This study was conducted by three researchers: Reiko Ogawa (RO), Ahmad Z. H. (pseudonym AZ), and AKBARI Hourieh (HA). RO has been involved in the evacuation and resettlement of evacuees from Afghanistan, and has developed a rapport with a broad range of Afghanistan citizens. The research framework and questions were developed by RO in close consultation with AZ and HA, who conducted the interviews and are both native speakers of Dari/Farsi. AZ is an evacuee himself, and his background enabled him to build a rapport with the interviewees, contributing tremendously to the research. HA also developed strong ties with the Muslim women interviewees, and contributed to the paper’s gender analysis.
The research is based on oral interviews, which constitute an established methodology in the fields of sociology, anthropology, political science and history. Oral interviews allow one to perceive individuals’ subjectivity and agency—thereby permitting an understanding of their diverse experiences. In this research, we aimed to reveal the experiences of evacuees from different groups while taking into account their age, gender, educational background and relationship with Japan. The interviewees were selected based on a purposive sampling that encompasses government officials, former international students, and NGO workers, as well as family members including wives and children. The team conducted online interviews between February to June 2023 among 17 people, whose profiles are attached in the Appendix.
This research was approved by the Ethical Review Committee at the Graduate School of Social Sciences, Chiba University (2022-07). It is based on the “do-no-harm” principle, which prioritizes participants’ dignity, safety and well-being9). Considering that the interviews could bring up traumatic experiences among evacuees, interviewers underwent advance preparatory training by a professional therapist with experience in trauma-based counseling. The protocol was prepared, and the interviewers were instructed in how to deal with emergency cases such as nervous breakdowns. Participants agreed to participate in the research on a voluntary basis, and were also informed that they could withdraw at any time.
In February 2020, the U.S. government signed an agreement in Doha with the Taliban—an armed group that has fought for nearly two decades against the Afghanistan government and its international allies. The U.S. and its NATO partners began pulling out their armies from Afghanistan following the Doha agreement, and the Biden administration announced the necessity to complete a full withdrawal from Afghanistan by 11 September 2021.
Before the fall of the Kabul government, the people of Afghanistan were living a relatively stable life. Despite corruption, security threats and economic challenges, the central government was functioning; and the majority of people in Afghanistan supported the country’s political structure. Thousands of national and international non-governmental organizations, CSOs and private sector companies were active, providing job opportunities for Afghanistan’s citizens in addition to social services. Many people pointed out that before 15 August 2021, everything in Afghanistan was “normal”, as in any other country. One JICA staff member commented as follows:
“Before August 15, the young generation in Afghanistan had a better life. We were educated, and working with the government or other organizations. I had a very happy and peaceful life. I was working with JICA, where I started out in a very low position. I believed that work security is much better in this organization. I was living with my family, parents and siblings, and I had a very happy life. My salary was very good. I had a perfect life. I was never expecting that the government would collapse one day. Before August 15, I had made an ideal life for myself and my other family members, but the Taliban destroyed everything. Now I am totally disappointed.”
Before the fall of Kabul by the Taliban, schools were open and attended by students, including girls. Women also had the freedom to work, and could appear out in society. Explosions, targeted attacks and crimes were happening throughout the country almost every day, but the people of Afghanistan had accepted these events as a bitter reality within their daily lives. Said one young evacuee:
“I was a high school student. At the same time, I was studying the English language at the Muslim Language Institute. I attended the Kankor (Pre-University) preparation course too. On Fridays, I met my friends and relatives. We had a very happy life in Afghanistan. Apart from security challenges, everything was going very well. Each month, we went to our village in the north of Kabul. I graduated from the Muslim Language Institute, but I could not join the graduation ceremony, because the Taliban came and we left the country.”
Another interviewee, a housewife, said the following:
“Our living situation was very normal. I was living in my own country and I loved it, but after the Taliban, everything changed. We were not feeling safe; my husband was working in the Japanese Embassy, and my daughters told me to leave Afghanistan. Therefore, we left the country and came to Japan. Overall, I was happy with our life before the Taliban. I never wanted to leave Afghanistan. Even when I was in Pakistan, I always wanted to go back to my own country and live there.
The Taliban had increased its attacks throughout the country by May 2021, and most provinces were captured rapidly. On 15 August the Taliban overran the capital, taking over the presidential palace. President Ghani and other high government officials had already fled the country. The financially poor and unfortunate people of Afghanistan were waiting for the time to decide their future; nobody had expected the chaos to occur so rapidly. The two decades of fighting for peace, stability and democracy in Afghanistan had failed.
On 14 August, a quiet night, the Taliban arrived behind the gates of Kabul City. It was the calm before the storm, however, since small groups of Taliban officials began entering the city the next afternoon. Kabul Airport was under the control of NATO and the U.S. Army to ensure a safe evacuation of international forces and their local allies. Thousands of Afghanistan citizens who had worked with the U.S. Army, foreign embassies, or other international organizations rushed into Kabul’s only airport to protect their lives by fleeing the country. Thousands of random citizens also rushed there as well, due to a situation of anarchy and mismanaged evacuation.
Kabul Airport was under intense security threat, as thousands of people waited behind its gates. The Japanese staff members of the Japanese Embassy were evacuated on 17 August by UK forces, but the local staff of both the Japanese Embassy and JICA were told to go home and wait. The Japanese government dispatched the Self-Defense Force on 23 August, and the aircraft arrived at Kabul Airport on 25 August. The plan was to evacuate more than 500 Japanese and local staff, along with their families. A strong explosion occurred near Kabul Airport on 26 August, however, killing more than 180 people. This also disrupted the evacuation process, as Japanese Embassy local staff and their families who were waiting inside the buses under the hot Kabul summer sun were asked to return home due to security threats. Their wait was also an extremely tense and fearful one, as the Japanese government had already provided the Taliban with all personal information of the local Embassy and JICA staff members and their families. Additionally, and for unknown reasons, some staff who asked to be evacuated were not permitted by the Japanese government to do so.
A few weeks later, the Japanese government asked its Embassy staff to go to the Kabul Serena Hotel to take a flight arranged by the Qatar Government, and they were then evacuated to Japan after a one-week temporary stay in Qatar. Most JICA staff were evacuated via land crossing, entering Pakistan via the Torkham border. Meanwhile, former international students (supported by MEXT and JICA) and NGO local staff were evacuated through private sponsorship by relevant universities and NGOs. One evacuee commented:
“During the first evacuation, an explosion happened in Kabul Airport. It was a very bad day. We were sitting inside the bus for hours. Then they told us to get distance from Kabul Airport. Finally, they told us to return home. For the second evacuation, they told us to go Kabul Serena Hotel in the morning. There, everything was managed very well. Our one-week stay in Qatar was very comfortable; there was no problem at all. Then we were moved to Japan.”
The JICA local staff had a different experience, because they had to cross a land border. According to one individual:
“This was dangerous and challenging, because reaching the Torkham border was our own responsibility. There were several Taliban military checkpoints on the way there from Kabul, and they stopped us at each checkpoint and investigated who we were and where we were going. We told them we were going to our relatives' wedding party in Jalalabad City, near the Torkham border.”
Since the Japanese government had already provided these persons’ personal information to the Taliban, they were extremely worried. The Japanese government had also negotiated with the Pakistan government for smooth entry into Pakistan, however, and Japanese visas were issued after a three-week wait in Islamabad. Countries including the United States, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Canada, India, Sweden, and Germany had already closed their embassies in Kabul. The Japanese Embassy was closed as well, so people had to travel to neighboring countries to apply for their Japanese visas under a situation of extreme uncertainty. For Afghanistan passport holders, the Japanese government had designated Japanese Embassies and Consulate-Generals in UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan to deal with visa applications. Pakistan was the only one among these countries to issue visas to Afghanistan nationals, however. Even then, visas were sometimes denied; or were so costly that some people traveled via Iran. One evacuee commented:
“I applied for a Pakistan e-visa in September 2021. I think the Pakistan government did not issue my visa because of my professional background, so I decided to apply for a Japanese visa in Iran. We had a connecting flight from Tehran to the Philippines, and then to Japan. My e-tickets were booked by my brother-in-law who is living in the U.S., and the travel agency was also American. Therefore, the Iranian police began investigating me and my family. They said I too must be American, because the flight ticket was purchased in the U.S., as was the person who purchased the tickets. They asked me to wait, and then the officer called the flight crew to depart. I asked him what would happen, and he said we were not allowed to fly as they had to confirm our trip. Finally, they said people from Afghanistan are not allowed to travel to the Philippines through Iran, and asked me to book a direct flight from Iran to Japan, although such a flight is not possible. We missed our flight, and the next day we booked another ticket for Qatar Airways and made our way to Japan.”
Clearly, the control of mobility through visas and flight tickets serves as an effective way to externalize border control without being seen in the public eye (Ogawa, 2023a).
The Japanese Embassy and JICA local staff were evacuated collectively by the Japanese government, and accommodated in the JICA training center. Meanwhile, privately-sponsored evacuees had to rent houses in different cities through direct support from Japanese universities, NGOs, companies and individuals. The findings of the survey revealed that the living situation for evacuees in the JICA training center was very challenging, with the narratives demonstrating that cultural values were not properly respected. For most families, it was not easy to adjust quickly to their new living environment. They had problems with the food, rooms, and other restrictions imposed by Japanese officials during their stay in the JICA center. The rooms are meant for single persons to stay for short-term training courses, and are not meant for families; especially those with small children. Upon arriving in Japan, however, people were assigned to stay in separate single rooms—with family members often separated—despite this being an extremely uncertain and fearful time while starting their new lives in a completely foreign country. One woman accompanying her husband who worked for the Japanese government commented as follows:
“We lost everything; being a refugee is not easy. I was not eating the food because I was not sure if it was Halal. The rooms at the JICA center were very depressing, and I could not sleep at night during the first weeks of our stay.”
Most of the evacuees were not happy with the management of the resettlement at the JICA center. Moreover, all compulsory education-aged children evacuated by the Japanese government could not go to school until April 2022. According to one evacuee, having children out of school for six months (for those who arrived in early October) is a “big cruelty”.
Meanwhile, others believed that the Japanese government was neither respectful nor responsive. One evacuee commented:
“We didn’t know what would happen after our stay at the JICA center. Whatever we asked the Japanese government, they were not clear and said they had no idea. Our family members, my wife, and my children were asking me about their futures, but I had nothing to tell them. Nobody was answering our questions. My stress and tension started exactly at that time. They were paying a salary only for me, but they kept my whole family as hostages. Nobody was allowed to move around. Wherever we wanted to go, we had to get permission from the Japanese government. This was very painful. Japanese were recommending us to respect their culture, but they were not respecting ours. For example, we were not allowed to go to the mosque. Our children were not allowed to gather and study their religious lessons. The Japanese government was spending a lot of money on food, but it was wasted and nobody was eating. They spent a huge amount of resources, but the management was very weak.”
The JICA training center was a temporary resettlement location for refugees from Afghanistan until their contract was terminated. Now they are living in separate houses in different prefectures, which most of them had to find by themselves. The narratives from a number of government evacuees indicate that soon after they arrived in Japan and finished their two-week quarantine, Japanese officials began repeatedly forcing them to return to Afghanistan. They called evacuees every day, asking for their return plan. The evacuees were told that life in Japan is extremely difficult, and that they would not be able to survive since they cannot work in the Japanese job market due to language barriers. In addition, the government was not ready to provide further assistance. The government evacuees—particularly local Embassy staff members—requested Japanese language training, support for their children’s education to attend high school and universities, and the opportunity to move into private housing. Each of these requests, however, was denied.
Japan is a very homogeneous society from a cultural perspective, so families felt even more marginalized. Some had already accepted that life in Japan was not feasible for refugees, and had returned to Afghanistan or left for third countries even after being recognized in Japan as refugees. The rest decided to stay, despite the constant insistence and incentives from Japanese officials to return. Some families did return, but managed to come back to Japan after realizing that they were no longer safe in Afghanistan. One such refugee commented:
“After a few weeks in Japan, officials were telling us every day to leave Japan and go back to Afghanistan. They said life in Japan would be very tough and challenging for us, and that we would not be able to survive here. They also said the Embassy re-opened, and we should go back to work. I returned to Kabul and resumed my job in the Japanese Embassy, where I worked every day. At Taliban checkpoints, they asked about our identity, job, salary, and income. They said we were foreign spies. I told them I am just a gardener. Several explosions also happened in our living area, and after discussing with my family I decided to return to Japan, since my Japanese visa was still valid.”
Some refugees who had the ability to move to a third country preferred to leave Japan. They believe Japan is not an ideal country for refugees from a long-term perspective, as its rules and policies do not meet international standards. Even though Japan is a signatory to the United Nations Conventions on Refugees, these refugees believe the Japanese government is not committed to international principles. The Japanese government told the evacuees that they would be sent back to Afghanistan after the situation was normalized under the Taliban regime. A former international student who studied for five years under a MEXT scholarship and has a Ph.D. from Japan commented as follows:
“I had a very happy and comfortable life in Japan, but I preferred to leave Japan and move to Germany for several reasons. First was my family; my wife did not want to live in Japan, because she felt very lonely. The second issue was the living situation from a long-term perspective. I had a one-year visa, which was extended for another year. The Japanese government told us we would be returned to Afghanistan once the situation was resettled and normalized, but they had a specific definition of a normal situation: recognition of the Taliban regime, opening of schools to girls, and general amnesty. They did not realize, however, the problem whereby we are Tajiks from north of the Afghanistan. Japanese officials said to me, ‘Other university professors are going to university in Afghanistan as usual. Why are they not facing any threat from the Taliban?’ Their information was based on the news and the media, which are mainly under Taliban control. They have no idea of the real situation in Afghanistan. They do not realize that a Tajik from the north of Afghanistan will always be an enemy. The Taliban will never trust us, and threatened me with death. Under the Taliban regime, I will never have freedom of expression, and the Taliban will never accept my knowledge and profession. For them, I am not a Muslim because I have studied in a non-Muslim country. When the Japanese government does not issue a long-term visa for me or my family members, how can I be sure about the future of my children?”
Those who have a chance to move to a third country are impatiently waiting for their cases to be processed. They believe that Western countries are much better places for refugees than Japan, since they provide temporary free accommodation, education, language courses, lawyers, cash assistance, insurance, jobs and residence documents. The former student continued:
“The German government provides more facilities for people like me. They provided a house, insurance, free language course, education for my children, and issuance of my German passport within three to five years. European governments have a very strong and clear policy for refugees. I have studied in Japan for five years, and I am familiar with the culture and values. My two kids were born in Japan. But still, the Japanese government did not support me properly.”
Many families, including those recognized as refugees, have already left Japan and moved to a third country. But does everyone have the opportunity or resources to move to another country?
At the same time, life in Japan also brought opportunities for these families, who can at least continue their education in Japan—something that no longer seems possible in Afghanistan. The youngest interviewee in the survey commented:
“Now I am happy in Japan, because I am going to school and I can continue my education. I think Japan is a better place for girls and women, because there are more opportunities. I would go back to Kabul one day if there is peace; maybe not for living, but only for sightseeing. My only concern is my father’s job. I hope the government helps us with this problem. I also expect the Japanese government to not recognize the Taliban regime.”
All children under 15 receive compulsory education. However, there is hardly any support for those above 16 years old to attend high school or university10). When Ukrainian refugees arrived in Japan, a better package of assistance was provided compared to those from Afghanistan or elsewhere. Most evacuees from Afghanistan have worked for years with the Japanese government, or other Japan-related organizations. They were dedicated to Japan, and put their life in danger within Afghanistan’s insecure context. This double-standard policy of the Japanese government between the recent evacuees from Ukraine and those from other countries—including Afghanistan—is definitely questionable, and also goes against international law. Opportunities for children’s education in particular should clearly be equal, regardless of nationality.
In addition to those who evacuated with their families, there are women who came to Japan alone. The survey explored the experiences of three female evacuees, bringing to light their unique challenges.
Cultural and religious trends in Afghanistan make women the frequent subjects of scrutiny, leading them to constantly face intense social pressures. Although change has been occurring in recent decades, it is not so common to see women actively participating in society, since they are expected to assume the roles of wives and mothers. The women interviewed came to Japan with familial support, and were raised in highly-educated families. Their stories highlight their windfall escape from the dire situation in Afghanistan, as well as their journey to Japan. Despite leaving their own country, their feelings for the families they left behind are always on their minds. One evacuee described her situation as follows:
“Ever since I was little, my family told me that education was the most important thing for a woman. Growing up with this educational policy, I always had a strong desire to learn—regardless of the difficulties I encountered. When I was finally able to come to Japan under the current circumstances, I applied to the Japanese government to obtain visas for my family. Unfortunately, the applications were not approved, and I had to come to Japan on my own. I considered staying in Afghanistan for the sake of my family, but they strongly objected.”
As evident from this interview, such attitudes differ from the prevailing norms in Afghanistan society. This family’s high level of education becomes apparent in the following interview:
“My parents were deeply committed to our education, and invested significant effort in it. One of my older sisters works as an engineer at a telecommunications company, while my younger sister is a professor in the sociology department at Kabul University. My other sister is currently enrolled in a Japanese language school in Japan.”
One woman who had dedicated several years to building a career in Afghanistan experienced the recent loss of her mother and brother (her father had passed away during her early childhood). Women's mobility became severely restricted with the establishment of the Taliban regime, making it difficult for them to venture outside independently. Consequently, some individuals (including this woman) opted to go to Japan because they lacked a spouse, and could not live freely in Afghanistan. She explains:
“After my mother and brother passed away, I truly had no place to call home. Under the Taliban regime, there is a law that women cannot live in a household without men. Women are also not allowed to go to the bank without a male companion. My brother’s sons were still young at that time.”
These women also faced economic challenges and other difficulties after coming to Japan. Financially, they experience distinct pressures relative to those who come with their families, as they must address their situations single-handedly. One evacuee in this situation noted:
“I received money from someone who provided a one-month guarantee for me. All of my expenses are my own responsibility, and the tuition fees at the Japanese language school are quite high. Currently, I work part-time at a supermarket. The cost of living in Japan is really...it's expensive. The rent is around 40,000 yen. I have a part-time job doing tasks like packing fish. It demands a lot of concentration, and is very exhausting.”
Another evacuee expressed deep concern about her and her family's future in Japan, primarily due to financial issues:
“If we want to provide a good education for our children, money is necessary. To be honest, our salaries are far from sufficient. We are barely making ends meet each month. It's just enough to survive; to eat and not starve. Under such circumstances, how can we envision a bright future for our children and ourselves? We can't see our goals for the next 3, 5, or 10 years. No matter what we want to do, it requires money. Whether it's for university or language school, we can't afford it. Learning is crucial for personal growth.”
Moreover, these women grew up living in affluence with their families in Afghanistan, and expressed significant feelings of pain and loneliness after coming to Japan as evacuees.
“I don't have time to make friends. The teachers at the Japanese language school are my main source of advice and support. My lifestyle in Afghanistan was very different. Being the youngest, I was always pampered by everyone. I didn't have to prepare even a single cup of tea at home. Work was also very easy. I just taught at school and came back. Now I have adjusted a bit, but the first two or three months here were very tough. I was going through a very difficult situation mentally, so my sister from Germany became concerned and came to Japan to support me. I would often cry thinking about my late mother.”
These three women are dedicated to working and studying in order to establish themselves in Japan. Hence, their experiences differ from Afghanistan women who live in Japan with their husbands. Young women who arrive alone often find themselves feeling isolated and occasionally experience rejection, while having limited opportunities to make friends.
When asked about their future plans, all three women have chosen to stay in Japan. However, unlike evacuees who have their families here, they find it challenging to live alone. Therefore, all three want to further their careers and bring their families to Japan, while also feeling responsible for their family members’ well-being.
“I am planning to stay in Japan for the foreseeable future. I will be here for at least the next two years, until I finish graduate school. I will have no complaints if I can bring my younger sisters and mother to Japan. My mother's health has deteriorated significantly. She needs my support.”
One of the young women expressed her feelings about Japan as follows:
“Japan is truly a peaceful country, and Japanese people show great respect for others' religions and values. In Japan, individual choices are highly respected. It might not be easy to openly express being a Muslim in Western countries, but Japan has not had the experience of accepting refugees in the past. It has been relatively closed off. Therefore, I believe there is resistance from both the government and the citizens toward accepting refugees. It's a new experience. In addition to refugees from Afghanistan, the number of Ukrainian refugees is also increasing. Isn't this a great opportunity for Japanese people? It's a chance to interact closely with people from different cultures.”
Two major points are emphasized within these interviews. One is strong family support. Given Afghanistan’s robust culture, family support is a significant factor in enabling Afghanistan women to come to Japan; and they often want to bring their family members. Secondly, they say that loneliness is affecting their lives in Japan. Unlike evacuees who come with their families, single women must handle everything on their own, from finances to language acquisition to employment. Consequently, they have limited opportunities in Japan to build a social community, finding themselves at a disadvantage with respect to accessing necessary resources.
The majority of Afghanistan refugees are living in a precarious situation. They left Afghanistan under life-threatening conditions, since they had been working with foreign countries. Now they are safe in Japan, since at least they will not be tortured or killed. However, they must now deal with other challenges in a new context. For most, adapting to a new life in Japan is not an easy experiment. Finding a house and proper job, learning Japanese, and following the extremely bureaucratic procedures of government agencies minus any governmental support are the main challenges that the Afghanistan refugees must tackle. The government evacuees expected that since they had spent years of their lives working for the Japanese government in Afghanistan, they would at least be provided with the minimum amount of support to start a new life.
One former international student who received the JICA scholarship commented: “When we were in Kabul, JICA sent an email11) wherein the head of the organization promised three things: They would help us find a job or education, provide accommodation and allowances, and help us move to Japan or a third country.” He continued:
“Most people were very optimistic, because JICA had promised to help us here. We came to Japan because we thought JICA would support us, but they did not. Not for the job, and neither for education nor moving to a third country. The living situation is really tough here for the evacuees.”
Those who are recognized as refugees go through Japanese language training organized by Refugee Headquarters (RHQ) for six months, but half-year of language training is not enough to seek decent work. Consequently, many of these individuals landed in precarious and unstable employment, which made their new life in Japan extremely harsh12). The people of Afghanistan typically live in large families, but it is almost impossible to afford all expenses through part-time jobs. Private Japanese language training centers are very expensive, and refugees cannot afford them. According to one evacuee who was recognized as a refugee:
“Currently, I am not working. I am in contact with Hello Work (a job center), but it seems they also cannot help us find a proper job, except for part-time ones. Finding a job and learning Japanese are the two key challenges: without a job we cannot live, and without the Japanese language, we cannot get a proper job here.”
People who worked in high-ranking positions, such as deputy ministers, university professors, or heads of departments, will not be able to do menial labor in factories and restaurants. An evacuee who was a former JICA international student commented:
“I studied most of my life, but now it is useless. Working conditions are really difficult here. We can only get part-time jobs. This is how our life is going on in Japan.”
The living cost is very high in Japan, and since citizens of Afghanistan have large families, it becomes extremely difficult to manage their lives. According to their narratives, certain extra expenses such as medical fees require that they spend from their savings. But savings will not last forever, and not everyone has that ability. The refugees’ living situation, including their economic status, has severely affected their mental and psychological health. One government evacuee said:
“Sometimes, I myself think of going back to Kabul, because the Taliban will kill you only once, but here we die every moment of our life. I am worried about my work or job, I am worried for the future of myself and my family, every day, every moment. I raised my children for 15 to 20 years, but now I am worried about their future in a developed country like Japan. I cannot help them.”
Some in the younger generation were also not able to continue their university education, because their parents cannot pay the tuition fee.
“My two daughters are going to school. My son also passed the admission test in one of the universities, but since the tuition fee was very expensive, he decided not to continue his education.”
The younger generation had to give up their studies in order to work to supplement the household income. Teenage girls who are happy(er) in Japan because at least they have the chance to go to school and live a free and safe life are also worried about their families and their future in Japan. One of them commented:
“When I was leaving Kabul, I had a very bad feeling. I was leaving my friends and relatives. I cannot forget my friends, they are always in my thoughts: my school, my friends, my classmates. I am asking the Japanese government to provide working opportunities for adults. A work suitable for one’s age and ability, nothing more. And also to provide more educational resources for families’ younger members.”
Evacuation to Japan has definitely opened up educational opportunities for girls and women, but they anticipate that this could be hindered by their families’ financial situation. Therefore, they expect the Japanese government to provide jobs and educational opportunities.
Some believe that the government of Japan is able to solve the employment problem, but that it is not paying enough attention to this issue. They are expecting Japanese CSOs to continue their advocacy and reflect upon the voices of refugees, who will otherwise be unable to survive amidst the prevailing conditions. One evacuee noted:
“Let me repeat once again that we are expecting the government of Japan to provide job opportunities for the refugees from Afghanistan, as other countries are doing. My friends are living in South Korea. They were introduced to companies by the government. They are really happy in their life.”
The survey shows that most refugees have mixed opinions when asked about their living situation in Japan. First, they are happy about the people of Japan and the culture, hospitality, kindness, and support for refugees.
“When I came to Japan and lived in the community, what I had read about the Japanese was totally true. A people full of kindness and politeness. Very generous and supportive. Overall, Japanese have been very helpful to me, even on my way to the market or to school or at the hospital,” one evacuee said.
Secondly, however, they feel that Japan’s government is not listening to their voices, or providing the necessary support to refugees as compared to international standards. A former student from Afghanistan said:
“For the short term, Japan is a better place than Afghanistan, because our life is safe. But for the long term, if it continues like this, I believe that most refugees will return to Afghanistan. The job market is really restricted for Afghanistan refugees, and the government is also not supportive.”
The findings of the survey show that the singular most important request of the refugees toward the government is to ensure them a life that they deserve as human beings in this country. As refugees, they have the right to work, study, and enjoy the advantages of a democratic society.
The evacuation of Afghanistan citizens is not the first case for Japan to receive a wave of refugees following a political crisis. More than 10,000 refugees resettled in different areas of Japan after the Vietnam War, but due to the low level of Japanese language and social support, they are still struggling with precarious lives. This paper demonstrates the difficulties faced by Afghanistan evacuees who become refugees, as well as the multiple challenges they have encountered even after receiving refugee recognition. Unlike in Western countries, a lack of coherent refugee policies to support their resettlement resulted in low socio-economic status, deterioration of mental health, and problems in children’s education that has led to a loss of hope toward living in Japan.
While the relationship between Afghanistan and Japan has deepened through overseas development aid and international students, the responsibility to offer protection should not be shunned when those development partners and international students are facing a well-founded fear of persecution. The three domains of international development, international students, and refugee protection are interrelated; and it is not possible to expand the former two without taking into account the third. More than 40 years have passed since the ratification of the Refugee Convention, and it is now time for Japan to seriously review its refugee resettlement policies based on humanitarian principles.
Acknowledgement: This research has been funded by Ichijiki Heiwa Kikin, and organized in collaboration with Action for Afghans (AFA). The research results were presented during the online seminar “Two Years After the Political Change on 15 August, 2021: Report Session on the Results of the Survey on the Current Situation of Afghanistan Evacuees” (25 August, 2023) organized by AFA, Chiba University Research on Migration and Refugees, in collaboration with International Peace Research Institute Meiji Gakuin University (PRIME) and Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (TUFS).
| Gender | Male | 11 |
| Female | 6 | |
| Age | 10s | 2 |
| 20s | 1 | |
| 30s | 6 | |
| 40s | 4 | |
| 50s | 1 | |
| 60s | 1 | |
| Educational Background | Bachelor Degree | 3 |
| Master Degree | 4 | |
| PhD | 3 | |
| Relationship with Japan | International Students | 6 |
| Government Employees and their Families | 10 | |
| NGO Staff | 1 | |
| Arrival Year | 2019 | 1 |
| 2021 | 11 | |
| 2022 | 5 | |
| Status of Residence | Designated Activities | 3 |
| Long-term | 9 | |
| Student | 2 | |
| Engineer/Specialist in Humanities/International Services | 1 | |
| Moved to a third country | 2 | |
| Current occupation | English teacher | 1 |
| Language school + part-time job | 2 | |
| Part-time job | 4 | |
| High school student | 2 | |
| Unemployed | 4 | |
| Moved to a third country | 2 | |
| Permanent employment | 2 |
