This study focuses on the “policy quirks” related to teachers’ qualities and competencies, extracts them, and examines the inertia of the policy quirks and the future direction of the policy.　Consequently, the following policy quirks are evident: （ 1 ）a structure dependent on quantity and comprehensiveness,（ 2 ）the presence of missing models, （ 3 ）over　reliance on mechanisms　（institutions）, hence（ 4 ）disregard for feasibility,（ 5 ）disregard for resource constraints, and（ 6 ）lack of personnel during implementation.　Furthermore, these quirks are accentuated by the viscosity derived from the path dependence of policies and institutions and the informal common rules that support them. This study demonstrates that strategies are needed to overcome these problems, specifically,（ 1 ）a shift to field-based learning,（ 2 ）a shift from an obligatory orientation to rights-based learning,（ 3 ）securing a foundation for learning, and（ 4 ）maintaining and securing external dialogue that can sustainably support this. Keywords: policy quirks, quantity and comprehensiveness, missing models, feasibility, resource constraints

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This study examines the direction of education policy regarding educational professionals from the perspective of securing them in the social context of a rapidly declining population. First, an overview of the social changes and trends in education policy related to the teaching profession is presented with a clarification that the teacher policy is undergoing a structural change from the current operational framework to a legal review, and the outcome is being considered in conjunction with the status of higher education. This analysis of a model assessing the impact of population decline on teacher supply and demand indicates that the structural supply-demand gap is predicted to worsen in the future. This prediction indicates that the education policy in a society with a declining population should address several key issues: Reaffirm the significance of purpose-based training and focus on core human resources, introduce a “tasks” perspective, reexamine the traditional concept of “teaching,” train and secure leadership talent, promote the settlement of international students in the teaching profession, and create rules for teacher quotas tailored to local conditions.　Keywords: population decline, teacher policy, teacher supply and demand, pur- pose training, teaching profession

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This study examines the issue of teachers working long hours, with a specific focus on the number of classes for which they are responsible. The primary inquiry concerns the disconnect between teachers’ long working hours and the number of classes they are assigned. This study clarifies this issue by focusing on government discourse, such as educational policy discussions within councils of government ministries. This study identified three phases to be examined regarding the number of class hours: first, the total hours allocated for student learning; second, the total number of class hours that organizations, institutions, and local governments should provide in a specific unit over a certain period; and third, the number of teaching hours that individual teachers are responsible for over a certain period. I subsequently verified the rationale for establishing a standard number of hours. I confirmed that the number of hours reflects the total required for ensuring learning for all students and that the number of hours serves as the basis for calculating national educational conditions. Furthermore, I confirmed that the autonomy of teachers and schools should not be limited by the total number of hours and the degree of management control. Next, I analyzed the discussions surrounding the number of class hours established by the government, focusing on the revisions of the national curriculum guidelines from 2008/09 and 2018/19 and the current council discourse. Consequently, I established that discussions have been based on the premise of increasing class hours in response to political demands, public opinion, and the Ministry of Finance. Additionally, I found a lack of comprehensive preparation of conditions, recognizing that setting standard teaching hours affects teachers’ workload, which is influenced by a disconnect between curriculum theory and work style reform discussions within the government. Finally, I confirmed that as local governments and schools face greater accountability for educational outcomes, a downward rigidity in required class hours has emerged. Keywords: learning class hours, required number of class hours, teaching class hours, course of study

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The issue of school non-attendance, a significant public concern, calls for a reevaluation of perceptions of children and the role of schools. Nagano Prefecture became the first in Japan to implement the “Shinshu Free School Certification System,” establishing a framework to provide diverse learning opportunities. This system aims to guarantee the learning rights of non-attending children by categorizing free schools into “support for belonging” and “support for learning” types while offering financial and operational support. Key operational challenges include the lack of standards for recognizing off-campus learning as attendance and for evaluating such learning, as well as the need to strengthen collaboration between schools, local governments, and free schools. Continuous improvements to the system are made based on feedback from stakeholders, with a focus on promoting multi-agency cooperation and enhancing support systems in the future.　Keywords: school non-attendance, Shinshu-type Free School Certification System, guaranteeing the right to learn, belonging support type/learning support type, multi-agency cooperation

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This study attempts to summarize the situation in which the menu of support for children who do not/are unable to go to school is diversified. A few cases were observed in which private free schools and their users are controlled and evaluated by the government in exchange for public subsidies. In fact, public subsidies increase the possibility of private free schools functioning as a safety net for children facing welfare challenges, as it allows even families in difficult economic circumstances to use free schools. However, diversifying the support menu for children who are not attending school will lead to marketization with the entry of commercial enterprises. Therefore, concerns abound that small free schools, which have been operated on a weak financial basis, will face a crisis of survival, especially those that have been trying to create a place that anyone can use by reducing fees. When local governments collaborate with private free schools, assessing their quality will be critical.　Keywords: public subsidy, standardization, safety net, entry of commercial enterprises, quality of free schools

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Free schools have a strong image of being a “home” or “second school” for children who do not attend school. However, claiming that their actual activities are understood can be difficult. Collaboration with free schools is becoming more important within today’s education policy; however, most private free schools are financially　strapped. In this study, I have summarized my opinions of the management activities of this free school, as well as the possibilities and prospects for the future. Keywords: support for school refusal, the best for the child, whereabouts support, right to education, free school

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The study aims to address the issue of school refusal policy in modern Japan and to reconsider it from the perspective of school support for all children, including children who do not go to school. First, this analysis examines the Act on Securing Compulsory Education Opportunities and its bills, highlighting that the school refusal policy being promoted in modern Japan emphasizes “diverse learning.” Second, we will summarize the economic situation of families with children who do not go to school, highlighting that such situations typically lead to reduced income while also incurring various expenses. Third, although some families that do not engage with traditional schooling seek school refusal support/business as a place to learn and belong, these supporters are Cobblestone mixing, which poses a risk of imposing diverse learning in these environments. Fourth, I would like to indicate the need to review the current school refusal policy based on the aforementioned points.　Keywords: school refusal, the Act on Securing Compulsory Education, opportunities, economic burden, diverse learning standardization

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The “Education DX” policy is an initiative led by the Prime Minister’s Office, the ministries, and public-private partnerships. In its implementation, the MEXT and the METI have both differences and points of congruence. The concept of “Utilizing Educational Data” is a point of congruence. To this end, the MEXT is promoting the standardization of education data. Some local governments are collecting extensive data on children and introducing “Education Dashboards.” This raises the question of how to guarantee children's right to privacy and how to avoid the trivialization of education policy when utilizing educational data.　Keywords: utilizing educational data, children’s right to privacy, EBPM

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As “DX” of education should be considered a national governmental policy, discussing local autonomy is meaningful. The 2024 amendment to the Local Autonomy Act added a new chapter titled “Information Systems,” aiming to standardize the information systems involved in the affairs of local administrations. Local public entities respond to subsidies from the national government. The meaning of local public entities having distinct legal personalities from the national government is currently questioned. However, within local public entities, the chief executive officers, the members of their assemblies, and local officials exist separately. Furthermore, outside local public entities, residents may have diverse views on the impact of collecting “data” about children on their “individual character.” Thus, academics should also discover and express the positive aspects of “transformation.”　Keywords: digital transformation, DX of education, local autonomy, individual character, transformation

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Set against the increasing global influence of OECD’s PISA, this paper proposes a critical approach to studying OECD’s PISA that challenges its fundamental logic of legitimation. It advocates for a normative stance in educational policy studies wherein explicit attempts are made to answer what kind of research education policy scholars ought to pursue to limit PISA’s undesirable impact on education around the world. At the core of PISA’s logic of legitimation, it is argued, lies the dualistic view between science （rationality） and politics （irrationality）, with PISA “spokesperson” Andrea Schleicher consistently associating PISA with the former and national policymaking with the latter. This paper proposes interrupting this dualistic logic as one of the most effective strategies to undermine PISA’s legitimacy. To achieve this end, education researchers must surface the messes, contradictions, and irrationalities in the construction of data, indicators, and frameworks that become muted in PISA’s rational, scientific discourse of procedural fairness and transparency. The paper then goes on to review two recent studies, involving Japanese researchers or researchers affiliated with Japan, that pursue the strategy proposed here. These studies help us understand how a close look at what goes on behind the production of PISA data can help us undermine the scientific status of PISA. The paper concludes by inviting Japanese education policy scholars to take a similar normative stance when studying OECD and PISA and contribute to the global effort to curb their influences.　Keywords: PISA, OECD, politicization, dualism, cultural bias, reading literacy, wellbeing, translation

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This paper introduces UNESCO’s 2021 international report “Reimagining Our Futures Together” and explores the possibilities for education in 2050. First, it discusses the background of UNESCO’s establishment and its relationship with Japan, then it examines the report’s concept of a new social contract for education. The report aims to build sustainable futures by ensuring education as a human right and reinforcing it as a common good. At its core, it identifies five key elements for reimagining education—pedagogy, curriculum, teachers, schools, and lifelong learning—and emphasizes the importance of collaboration and solidarity, critical thinking, and inclusive educational spaces. However, challenges such as the complexity of the report’s language and a lack of inclusivity are noted. As UNESCO works to disseminate the report’s significance through follow-up activities and international cooperation, dialogue and action are anticipated to further the development of education as a common good. In Japan’s education administration, there is a call to revisit past experiences and create opportunities for inclusive decision-making involving all stakeholders.　Keywords: UNESCO, transforming education, new social contract, technologies, knowledge commons

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In Japan, the discourse pertains to the fair distribution of educational opportunities without sufficiently addressing the complexities surrounding it, such as the trade-off between equality of educational opportunities and freedom of educational choice. Given this circumstance, this study aims to address these issues by drawing on the discussions accumulated in political philosophy, especially in distributive justice.　More concretely, this study examines the benefits and concerns of sufficientarianism, which demands ensuring a sufficient level of education for everyone, as an alternative norm to egalitarianism, which demands more radically to guarantee equal chance substantially. After examining three benefits in chapter 2 and two concerns in chapter 3, this study discusses the challenges of restricting freedom of educational choice in a philosophically justified manner and, therefore, the difficulty of demanding as the norm more than what sufficientarians demand. Next, this study proposes the possibility of daring to adopt sufficientarianism as the norm of distribution of educational opportunities, considering its benefits.　This study does not aim to adjudicate between sufficientarianism and egalitarianism; rather, it seeks to clarify the difference between these two norms and to systematicallu articulate the concept of equality of educational opportunities, which may yield diverse implications.　Keywords: justice of educational policy, sufficientarianism, equality of educational　opportunity,　freedom　of educational choice, positional goods

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This study aims to clarify the substance and limitations of educational activities aimed at “response to individual students” through participant observation and interviews with teachers at a full-time general education school, specifically a high-needs high school. Previous research has analyzed educational activities at high-needs high schools through the lenses of “standardization” and “response to individual students,” perceiving these aspects as inherently conflicting. The dilemma arising from these two aspects remains inadequately addressed, and the sub- stance and limitations of “response to individual students” have not been fully explored.　The analysis revealed that at the case school, educational activities were practiced through “rule-setting to facilitate individual responses to students.” These educational activities exhibited a duality: one aimed at preventing school dropouts and the other at preparing students for further education or employment. However, in high-needs high schools, the former took priority, and the latter was relegated to the background, revealing its limitations. The findings of this study suggest the need to consider systems and a sufficient allocation of teachers with current conditions to support the dual goals of ensuring school attendance and facilitating transitions to further education or employment.　Keywords: high-needs high school, standardization, response to individual students, the dilemma, ethnography

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In recent years, an increasing number of municipalities in Japan have introduced a small specially chartered school（SSCS）　system, which is a type of school choice. Previous studies focus on the preference factors and social class related to parents ’school choice behavior and mainly use quantitative analysis to demonstrate these trends; however, the SSCS system has not been included in the scope of these studies. This study aims to reconsider the reality of parents who use school choice, with a focus on the decision-making process of parents in an SSCS. This study involved seven parents who chose an SSCS as a case study and analyzed their decision using TEM, which highlights both commonalities and diversities among individuals in the process over time. The results indicate that the attitudes of parents are wavering in the decision-making process, depending on how they obtained in- formation about the SSCS, the content of the information, and their motives for using the SSCS. This evidence suggests that parents do not necessarily want school choice from the start and may be changing through the consideration of school choice.　Keywords: school choice, small specially chartered school, Trajectory Equifinality Modeling　（TEM）, wavering attitudes

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This study aims to clarify some of the changes in the management of staff meetings under postwar school administration policies. In the postwar period, various ways of managing staff meetings were explored. For example, the “school councils” in Aichi Prefecture were analogous to staff meetings and functioned as the “supreme decision-making body” of each school under the system in which the chairman was elected by mutual vote. However, it has been pointed out that the school administration policies of the 1950s to the 1970s brought about changes in the way staff meetings were managed. Previous studies have not fully clarified how the policies promoted from the 1950s to the 1970s were implemented in each region and what changes occurred in the management of staff meetings in each school. This study examines the changes in school councils in Aichi Prefecture from the 1950s to the 1970s as a case study. In conclusion, this study reveals that in Aichi Prefecture, struggles were observed between schools and prefectural boards of education over the succession of school councils and that the functions and management systems of school councils in each school gradually changed because of these struggles.　Keywords: staff meetings, school administration policies, school councils, Aichi prefecture, postwar

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This study examines the policy process surrounding the “Act for Establishing the Ad Hoc Council on Education,” which was enacted in August 1984. Although the Ad Hoc Council of Education was described as the reform led by the Prime Minister’s Office, or the beginning of neoliberal education reform, this study recontextualized the political backgrounds and systemic circumstances of that period. The Ad Hoc Council for Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone aimed to stabilize the political foundation. The policy concept originated from Takeo Nishioka, a key member of the education tribe in the Liberal Democrats Party（LDP）, where he served as a coordinator. However, he lost the Diet member seat in the December 1984 election. Furthermore, senior education tribe Diet members within the LDP opposed the revisions of the Fundamental Law of Education. Additionally, the Management and Coordination Agency had just been established. Thus, the Ministry of Education participated in the formulation of the Act. Finally, in the argument in the Diet, the cabinet was required to explain the need for an ad hoc council. Consequently, the purpose of the Ad Hoc Council was likely to be unclear and ambiguous. The process of the “Act for Establishing the Ad Hoc Council” imposed limitations on the Ad Hoc Council’s agendas.　Keywords: “The Ad hoc Council on Education,” “Yasuhiro Nakasone,” “Takeo Nishioka,” “led by the Prime Minister’s Office,” “neoliberal education reform”

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In Japan, the legal framework permits the use of religion as a substitute for morality in private schools, as outlined in Articles 50（ 2 ）and 79 of the Regulation for Enforcement of the School Education Act. However, the formalization of moral education as a subject has initiated a debate regarding the viability of this substitution. This study investigates how religious education teachers have “translated” or responded to these policy changes, both during the process leading to the institutionalization of moral education and after its implementation. Based on semi-structured interviews with four head teachers of religious education, this study revealed varied translation styles. These differences were influenced by each teacher’s values and beliefs regarding religious education, institutional expectations from school management and teaching departments, and the broader institutional environment surrounding religious education within each school.　The findings indicate that different “translation” styles have emerged in response to these complex dynamics. Furthermore, the study posits that teachers, middle-level actors, school organizations, and external environmental factors—each with their embedded values—should be recognized as agents capable of resisting or strategically utilizing educational policies. This perspective highlights the multi- faceted nature of policy translation in educational settings.　Keywords: moral education reform, religious studies, policy enactment, policy translation, politics

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This study comparatively analyzes the demographic attributes of board members in Japanese prefectural boards of education and public safety commissions, focusing on gender representation and occupational backgrounds. While prior research has predominantly examined these members’ policy influence, critical gaps remain in understanding their descriptive characteristics. Using national statistics and disclosed administrative documents, this study systematically compares the two entities, which share institutional mandates for political neutrality but differ in membership structures. Key findings reveal that boards of education exhibit significantly higher female descriptive representation, attributable to two structural factors: （ 1 ）larger membership sizes per prefecture and（ 2 ）national policies to promote gender balance in boards of education. By contrast, occupational data indicate a relative skew toward professional and technical backgrounds in boards of education compared to public safety commissions. Meanwhile, individuals in managerial positions, such as bank presidents, are more prominently represented in public safety commissions. These findings suggest that, despite skepticism about the representative function of boards of education, the system plays a meaningful role in enhancing women’s descriptive representation. Furthermore, it is implied that the expertise of board members in education could be evaluated based on the type of representative activities they are expected to perform during the policy-making process.　Keywords: board of education, public safety commission, political representation, gender, occupational background.

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