In team sports, hesitation occurs when teammates make way for each other, and collision occurs when they crash into each other. The current study investigated reasons of these failures by focusing on the effect of the location of a target and the participants’ intentions on the failures. Ten and 6 pairs performed a choice-reaction task in cooperation in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Participants were told that they had to push a flashing button as quickly and accurately as possible and that either member could push. In Experiment 1, the distance between participants and the target (equal/unequal) and the location of the target (on the diagonal line between participants/on the off-diagonal line) were independent variables, and the number of failures were dependent variables. After completing the task, they participated in a semi-structured interview. In Experiment 2, the distance between participants and the target (equal/unequal) and the target row (center row/other rows) were independent variables. Quantitative analyses revealed that hesitations were triggered by the target in the center row. Qualitative analyses revealed that the failures have a connection with various reasons such as the target’s location and participants’ personality; moreover, the failures are divided into hesitation and collision according to the participants’ attitudes to the failures and their visual perception of their partner and the target.

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The purpose of the present study was to clarify the influence of individual differences in the automatic imitation tendency on efficiency in observational motor learning. First, twenty participants each having higher or lower automatic imitation tendency were chosen from 210 according to their reaction times in the imitation-inhibition task indicating automatic imitation tendency. Each group performed the observational motor learning that alternately repeated action observation and execution. The participants in each group were further divided into two groups: appropriate model group that observed a model performing the task correctly and inappropriate model group that observed a model performing the task incorrectly. Results revealed that when participants observed the appropriate model, people with higher imitation tendency demonstrated better task performance in the acquisition phase and retention test than did those with a lower imitation tendency. On the other hand, when the participants observed the inappropriate model, the higher imitation tendency group exhibited lower performance in the acquisition phase and the retention test than did the lower imitation tendency group. Additionally, the higher tendency group was more influenced by difference between the appropriate and inappropriate model than was the lower tendency group in learning efficiency. These findings indicate that individual differences in the automatic imitation tendency affect the learning efficiency and retention in observational motor learning. Further, automatic imitation is likely to have a strong influence on observational motor learning regardless of the learnersʼ intention.

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Wegner (1987) demonstrated that thoughts about white bears are facilitated by instructions not to think about white bears. This phenomenon is widely known as the ironic process theory, and it applies to cognitive tasks as well as motor tasks. Many studies have been conducted on ironic errors in the domain of motor performance. However, there are only a few old reviews providing a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon. In this review of selected 17 articles, we classified these articles into experimental verification of ironic errors in motor performance, ironic errors when performing motor tasks under pressure, and mechanisms of ironic errors in motor performance in the viewpoints of attentional capacity and eye movement. We also reviewed articles reporting experimental verification of errors in the opposite direction (overcompensation), including the mechanisms of such errors. Finally, based on the results of the review, we have suggested the implications of ironic errors for future studies in sport psychology. This review is expected to provide a systematic understanding of applications of ironic processing theory in the domain of motor performance and contribute to future studies on this topic.

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