We can discern two different periods in the development of the educational thought of Kanjiro Higuchi: one before, and the other after 1899 when he left Japan for France and Germany to study. His educational thought in the earlier period was not unrelated to such trends as were represented in the idea of "individualism" that arose in Japan after the Sino-Japanese War. The idea was connected with those desires to express one's own feelings freely. His theory of "activism" in education aimed at liberating the oppressed energies of children from the oppressive Herbartian theory of "Regierung" and the formalized "Formalstufen" through complete admission of their self-expression and self-assertion and through constraint of teachers' leadership. On this point, we can admit that Higuchi "put a period to the golden age of the Herbartian theory in Japan and marked a turning-point to the new educational thought" (Satoru Umeno). His "activism" intended to restore the spirits among the younger generation and to make them take a most active part in the arena of competition with other countries in the world. His opinion in "activism" was, in this sense, directed by a kind of " National Romanticism." It interests us that his educational thought was influenced by that of F. Parker who was generally regarded as the pioneer of "the New Education" in the United States. His "activism" had a kind of positiveness and progressiveness so far as liberation from the Herbartian formalism was concerned, but once this liberation became only that, it fell into mere self-satisfaction and disorder-self-complacent liberation. When Herbartianism was formalized and was dethroned from its absolute and authoritative position in education, his "activism" lost its object to confront. He gradually ceased to advocate "activism" and instead began to pTeach "National-socialistic New Education" that found its positiveness in confronting socialistic thought arising at that time. This marks the characteristics of his educational thought in his later period. His "national-socialism" was a kind of nationalism that might "auf heben" both "individualism" and "socialism" in its theoretical appearence. His theoretical structure could be regarded as the theoretical reflection and rationalization of partial absorption and systematization of the educational needs of labour and the middle classes so far as these needs might agree with those of the national authority. We might conclude that his "activism" was inherited by the New Education Movement in the earlier Taisho period, especially in its liberalistic and individualistic aspects.

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In this article I have studied the educational practice of Mr. Enosuke Ashida who made a great contribution to the educational history of Japan, especially in the Taisho Era, when he perfected his thought in the free choice of subject method. In his free cohice of subject method of teaching composition writing, I find the following three steps. (I) During the first stage, the teacher gives the pupil a subject related to the topic. (II) During the second stage, the teacher gives the pupil a subject, but it is not related to the topic. (III) During the third stage, the teacher asks the pupil to write what he himself thinks and he selects his own subject. The third stage is based on the idea that the teaching method should be practical rather than theoretical, that the teacher must educate himself, and that it should be centered on the child's life experiences. Then he insists on the cultivation of the child's mind, that is, teaching the child to look within his own mind rather than deal with social problems. This is shown in the method of criticising the child's composition and the process the teacher uses in guiding the writing of the composition. The practices of the teachers belongieg to the " Seikatsu Tsuzurikata* movement, which is the important educational inheritance of Japan, teaches the sbudent to solve problems by beginning with his own individual life and moving to social and cooperative areas. Comparing Mr. Ashia with "Seikatsu Tsuzurikata," I feel that they are similar in that they both center on the child's life. But I find one important difference in the two, that is the difference in the purposes of the two. The purpose of Mr. Ashida seems concerned with the individual. The purpose of Seikatsu Tsuzurikata is concerned with the individual as a part of society. *roughly translated "Life-centered Composition Writing"

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The thesis under the title "The Educational ideas of Isocrate and his role in Ancient Greece" is an attempt at clarifying the place of Isocrates in the history of education in Greece from the standpoint of social history. In this thesis, first of all, Greek society is regarded as a pattern based on the Polis, each an autonomous and closed social group, and all with mutually hostile activities. Second, we consider the Polis itself as a cooperative body for defense, supported by people who possessed small lands and a few slaves. In this respect, the Polis is thought of as a society based on the relationship between classes (citizens and slaves), in other words, in one aspect a slavery society, in another aspect a society full of democratic atmosphere among the citizens, constructed by them from the point of view of equality. Accordingly we can see the consciousness of discrimination against the people who do not belong to the Polis or an attitude inimical to the slaves rising to become members of the group of citizens, the constituent members of the Polis. While, at the same time we note a remarkable tendency among the citizens to seek the strengthening of the bonds of union. One of the note worthy phenomena is the national control over the education of the citizens, regarding the Polis as a community of a group of people with the same ancestors. Considering education conducted under the abovementioned tendencies as typical in the Polis, it is easy to understand how educational thoughts advocated by Isocrates influenced society in Greece ; he expounded the ideal of Panhellenism, attached more importance to culture than to blood relationship, urged an education based on Reason as necessary for mutual under- standing. Besides, he stressed the necessity of private education, insisting that the guarantee of the opportunity of education depended much more on property than upon citizenship. We should conclude our discussion of the influence of Isocrates upon society in Greece by calling attention as well to his conservative tendencies as seen; in his limited place for peace-loving ideas, and in the stress he puts on the value of supervision of the life of the citizens through a revival of the Areopagus, the ancient court of judges.

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The combination of education and politics is one of the most serious problem today. Studying the history of education, we should understand that this problem has been characterized as an important problem in the long history of education since the establishment of absolutistic state. It has appeared in the form of collision between the humanist, who claims the combination of education and politics in the new direction, and the state-power, who tries to compell the combination in the old and conservative direction. It may be said that FroebePs life was the typical case of this problem. (1) Absolutic-Power refused FroebePs humanistic proposal to the wife of lord of SchwaTzburg-Rudolstadt. For they thought education was the most effective means controling people. (2) By the diversion of oppinion in the government, the Prussion government's intervention against FroebePs educational activities was failed. (3) Froebsl criticised the german political system in his work : "The new year 1836 wants the revolution of life." (4) Froebel endeavored in his plan of "educational union" realisation of the "revolution of life" by means of the educational system by, of, for the people. (5) Absolustic power prohibited the establishment of "Kindergarten" according to the FroebePs principle, in the name of "atheism" or "socialism." I have studied the historical and social conditions of these facts. I have appointed in this treatise that Froebel desired that " natural " and "humanistic" combination of education and politics in the republican society.

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In order to study the result of the Kokushikan of the Ming Era, it is necessary to examine the Civil Examination, for the former was conducted mainly for the latter. In this study, therefore, I have studied officialism and problems created by the increase of the competitive rate of the Civil Examination toward the end of the Ming Era. Contents Chapter I Introduction Chapter II The Contest of the Civil Examination Chapter III The Chronicle of the Civil Examination and Conclusion

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In the beginning of the nineteeth century, as the movement to establish independent teachers seminaries became noticeable, Massachusetts was the first pioneer state to set these seminaries on their way in the United States. Three free normal schools, in Lexington and Barse, in 1839, and at Bridgewater, in 1840, were established in Massachusetts. These schools were established under the regulations of 1839 and 1840, and came under the supervision of the State Board of Education, but directly under the Committe of Visitors. Problems such as lack of understanding of teaching as a professional occupation, the relatively high expense besides the tuition, and the low wage base of teachers, which seemed to be blocking the sound development of normal school education in the late 1840's, were found through careful analysis to necessitate an extension of the term of study and a betterment of the various situations under which the students had to carry on their work during this period. As an outcome of the great emphasis placed on the training of women teachers by the State Normal Schools, more and more women teachers took their place in society daring this period. However, as Mann pointed out, their advancement was not based on the fact that women teachers were thought to make better teachers, but because they could be paid less than men. Though a relatively large number of normal school graduates came to be employed in Massachusetts, the main purpose of the normal school was not eminently successful, because the low pay and the low social status did not encourage most teachers to stay in their position permanently. In practice and in organization these normal schools, seen from the stand point of the teachers seminary movement of the early nineteenth century, were still far from the ideal. But as putting the ideal into same sort of form, highlighting the problems of that time, and putting stress on the need for the professionalization of teaching, this development in the late 1840's must be considered important.

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