This study examines the relationships between Japanese high school students’ speaking self-efficacy and speaking performance from a different perspective. Two types of self-persuasion, instructional and motivational cues (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2008), were employed to assess the impacts on speaking self-efficacy across genders in delayed tests. The results showed that males rely more on instructional cues while females on motivational ones. Moreover, independent samples t-tests revealed that significant gender difference exists in out-of-class self-efficacy. Lastly, possessing higher self-efficacy could help students maintain speaking proficiency. Future pedagogical implications are discussed based on the results.

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Enhancing communicative abilities is a key issue in English education. Research has been conducted on various communicative approaches, and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) shows what kind of abilities are needed for fluent and accurate communication. Nevertheless, TOEFL test results show that English education in Japan has failed to nurture good language learners. This article investigates the pedagogical problems, focusing, in particular, on two different approaches in language teaching: learning-based production (LBP) and production-based learning (PBL). It will be argued that the core problem might be overcome by recognising each learner as a whole. In light of this, it proposes the need for a paradigm shift from LBP to PBL. To change the directions in teaching, however, English education needs to be viewed from both a broader and long-term perspective spanning centuries. Consequently, discussions in this article include some speculative views concerning education in the 22nd century, revealing what needs to be done in this century.

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This study is aimed at clarifying the differences of learning efficiency in terms of active and interactive learning perspectives between the two roles given to learners - the director and performer - in the skit activities which have been introduced by the new Course of Study. To attain this aim, a study involving a questionnaire related to active and interactive learning was conducted. The statistical results indicated that, as a whole, there were no differences between the two roles in regards to learning efficiency, which shows group skits have the same effects on not only directors but also performers.

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