Because beam bumping is the problem for vibration and wave motion, it is necessary to consider the beam dimensions for elucidating its mechanism. In this paper, beam dumping experiments were carried out with 4 test pieces of different length and shapes to investigate the influences of support system, length and cross sectional area of the beam, and area of the rubber on the buffering effect of the shock absorbing rubber. It was revealed that bumping stress is largely affected by the beam length, and the bumping mechanism can be estimated successfully by the impedance method if mean stiffness of the shock absorbing rubber during bumping is known.

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In the design practice of retaining walls for road embankment, in particular for stacked block type retaining walls which have been widely used in Japan, any eartuquake effects have not been taken into account. However, the heavy damages to mountain roads caused by Niigataken-chuetsu EQ clearly indicated nessesity to secure aseismisity of such retaining walls. In this study, the failure mechanism was studied through invesitigation of the damaged and undamaged walls. A simple method to evaluate failure potential of existing retaining walls, in which cone penetration test and bearing capacity calculation are incorpotated, are proposed.

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In the present design standard, although the ground has heterogeneity, it is not taken in detail into consideration by the basis of assumption of being homogeneous, about the heterogeneity. It has a discussion to the performance design of the earth structure, and it is thought that input parameters are important. This research considered influence, which it has on earthquake response characteristics, when it took into consideration about the spatial heterogeneity of the ground for the embankment. Consequently, by taking the spatial heterogeneity of the ground into consideration showed that the influence that it has on the maximum response acceleration was small, and residual displacement was upward tendency.

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The objective of this study is to evaluate effect of vertical ground motion on dynamic response of underground RC structures embedded in horizontally layered ground with inclined bedrock at the right side. Because of irregular topology of ground some extent of vertical response is occurred by only horizontal ground shaking, and frequency characteristics of acceleration response near the structure scarcely fluctuated. Then horizontal and vertical components of seismic load is roughly caused by respective component of ground motion. As far as the effect of ground motion, is concerned, horizontal component plays a rules on global shear deformation and vertical one brings a slight fluctuation of axial force on upward columns.

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In an earthquake disaster, schoolteachers should play many important roles. This study aims to develop a framework of various activities that schoolteachers are expected to take appropriate actions during and after the disaster. A number of activities are identified and classsified into eight types: First reaction, management of emergency office, collecting information, education planning, incidental jobs, recovery of facilities and equipment, healthcare and assistance for managing the evacuation shelter. A modal change between the disaster and usual modes is proposed to cope effectively with devastating disaster.

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Relationship between Fourier amplitude and phase of an earthquake ground motion is discussed using near-field strong motion records of the 2000 Western Tottori earthquake. According to the factorization theory, earthquake records are decomposed into minimum-phase-shift (MPS) and all-pass functions. Fourier amplitude of MPS is equals to that of earthquake records and is in inverse correlation to Fourier phase of MPS. Moreover the H/V spectral ratio is related to H-V MPS phase difference. It is due to a fact hat Fourier amplitude and phase of MPS are related with each other in terms of the Hilbert transforms.

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Because the Mid Niigata Earthquake in 2004 occurred at the local and mountainous regions, the highway facilities such as road embankments and road slopes were damaged severely and the road performance were interrupted at many sites. For future earthquake disaster prevention, it is very important to clarify the characteristics of damage factor, damage level and road performance induced by earthquakes.
This study conducts to estimate the characteristics of damage level of road facilities such as embankment, slope and bridge and the regulation of road traffic after the earthquake based on the data obtained by field investigation and other references. Several effective lessons on the damage level and road performance just after the earthquake can be obtained in this study.

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In this report, the ground displacement was estimated from the record of the strong motion observation and the numerical simulation for the mid Niigata prefecture earthquake in 2004, and the damage of the water supply pipelines and the estimated ground displacement were compared.
As the result, it was found that the maximum, horizontal displacement of approximately 80cm had been momentarily generated in the Near-field before the permanent displacement of approximately 50cm was generated. Moreover, it is thought that the dynamic displacement of the ground level was more than ten times larger than the design displacement of the seismic design codes.

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In this paper, comparison between FEM seismic deformation analysis and two-dimensional FEM dynamic response analysis was performed, for a typical underground railway two-layered structure with two spans which was assumed to be composed by linear elastic elements. This study was performed under the assumption that the earthquake was rated at the level 2. As the results, the applicability of the seismic deformation methods using static FEM technique to a typical underground railway two-layered structure with two spans was confirmed. Taking non-linearity of structural beam into consideration, damage simulation due to FEM seismic deformation method was carried out, for the Daikai Station of Kobe Rapid Transit System which was severely damaged by the 1995 Kobe Earthquake, followed by confirming the effectiveness of FEM seismic deformation method.

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Two damage identification techniques for structures based on change in modal data and frequency response functions (FRFs) are presented. A learning coefficient was introduced to prevent the solution from divergence. The technique aims to identify damage only from single input and single output (SISO) data using single sensor and single actuator. To save time and labor of experiments, we present an idea of using modal data easily measurable, and changing the excitation frequencies at wide range instead of changing the position of devices. Through numerical simulations, two techniques were both verified. It is confirmed that combining both data improves the identification accuracy even if measured modal data.

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Structures contain a lot of uncertain factors, such as variations in material and geometrical characteristics. Reliability analysis evaluating variations in structural performance caused by these various variation facots is therefore very important. It is also meaningful to analyze seismic reliability of the entire system if the structures show complex behavior during earthquakes. This study conducted reliability analysis of the whole system of a cable-stayed bridge and evaluated its seismic performance using damage indices which account for (a) maximun deformation; (b) cumulative damage; (c) both maximum deforaion and cumulative damage. Regional earthquake occurence probabilities are evaluated using seismic risk analysis, and seismic reliability considering both uncertainty in structural properties and difference in earthquake occurence probability.

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Sand compaction pile (SCP) method has been widely used as a countermeasure against liquefaction since 1970's in Japan. Its effectiveness has been confirmed in recent past earthquakes. However, in the practical design of SCP, only the strength of surrounding improved ground is considered and dense sand piles are not taken into account. For a rational design, it is necessary to consider not only the surrounding improved ground but also the sand piles. In order to study the characteristics of SCP improved composite ground under undrained cyclic shear loading, pararell elementary tests were conducted in the laboratory. The undrained cyclic strength of SCP improved composite ground was obtained and characteristics of shear stress distribution in the SCP improved ground was discussed in this paper.

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This study investigates the seismic performance of a balanced arch bridge using artificial lightweight aggregate (LWA) concrete. Dynamic analysis has been carried out for the bridge using stress-strain model, and properties of LWA concrete obtained from our previous study. In order to compare the use of LWA with normal concrete, different cases were considered. Results showed that a bridge with LWA concrete had seismic performance level 2, while the same bridge with normal concrete failed to perform even level 4. There was a 10% reduction in the number of piles when LWA concrete was used for the whole structure than when used only for arch and piers. It is also possible to reduce the size of bridge members by using the concrete.

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This study described the investigation results on change in vibration characteristics of structures due to damage based on ambient vibration and forced vibration testing using a micro shaking device. We firstly estimated changes in natural frequencies, damping ratios and mode shapes between intact and damaged structures from ambient vibration measurements. Secondly, we obtained changes in harmonic excitation responses and investigated their sensitivitires to damage. Compared to natural frequencies, damping ratios and mode shapes, harmonic excitation responses have larger sensitivities to damage and have the higher possibility to be used as input data for damage detection.

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This study addresses how the non-linear relative bridge girder-pier displacements as well as the relative displacements between the adjacent bridge girders affect damage potential of multi-span bridge structures. Spatial non-uniform ground excitations at the adjacent bridge piers are simulated stochastically based on Japanese design spectrum for a hard-soil site. The study reveals that commonly assumed girder stiffness for the end restraint overestimates the actual effective end-restraint stiffness. The end restraints can reduce the activated forces in the non-linear bridge structures. A consideration of non-uniform ground excitation is essential for a realistic estimation of bridge responses and damage potential.

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In order to obtain the basic knowledge about the deformation mechanisms of box culvert structures buried in the saturated sand during an earthquake, a series of centrifuge shaking table tests were conducted using metal structures, on which two-way load cells were fixed on the each side walls and the upper slab to measure the acting force separately. It was observed that because of the negative excess pore pressure generation, the shear force per unit area and the total horizontal earth pressure could become higher than the initial vertical total stress and the moment ratios of the moment acting on the each member of the structure to the summation of those moments gradually changed during a shaking event.

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After a large scale earthquake, damage evaluation of bridge structures is currently conducted by means of visual inspection by bridge experts. So the develop of sensing technique which can detect the damage level of bridge structures promptly and correctly is expected. A new damage evaluation system using advanced sensors just after the earthquake is being developed.
This paper presents the study on the damage evaluation method using the natural period change of the bridge columns, and the effectiveness of the proposed method demonstrated through two series of shaking table tests.

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We have developed a strong motion simulator to predict earthquake disaster in a wide region including large cities. This simulator has the merit that can efficiently execute the following. (1) A large scale 3-D underground structure is modeled by GIS technology. (2) Generation of ground motion by fault destruction and seismic wave propagation are calculated by a voxel FEM with parallel processing. (3) The realistic strong ground motion is obtained by combining short period motion using the statistical Green's function and multiplying the surface ground amplification factor. The utility of this simulator is shown in this paper through the analysis of the Kanto earthquake in 1923.

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The present earthquake resistant design method for sheet pile quay walls with vertical pile anchorage against level-one eathquake motion employs the static method which uses the perforance criteria as the stress becomes smaller than the allowable stress. Considering the serviceability of quay walls, however, deformantion shall be smaller than the allowable value in view of the bertihng capability of ships afetr the earthquake. We studied the correlation between the deformation and section forces of sheet pile quay walls by using the two-dimensional earthquake response analyses. It was found that deformation is the governing factor for sheet pile quay walls with vertical pile anchorage from the serviceability point of view. Therefore, performance criteria for sheet pile quay walls with vertical pile anchorage against level-one earthquake motion shoud be determined in terms of deformation. It was also found that safety margin of sheet pile, tie-rod and vertical pile differ from each other.

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To examine the effect of irregular underground structure on seismic ground motions, six twodimensional irregular underground structure models composed of a shallow surface layer and a basement layer were analyzed with 2D wave propagationmodels using the Finite Element Method. Analytical results in terms of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA), Peak Ground Velocity (PGV), and instrumental seismic intensity show that ground motions at the surface are amplified due to the irregular underground structures.

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The attenuation of horizontal component and the amplification of vertical component of the seismic motion had been observed in the vicinity of the ground surface of the Port island during the 1995 Hyogoken-nambu earthquake. This behavior in the Port island is similar to the behavior of seismic motion propagation in buildings with a seismic base isolation system. First the observed seismic records in the buildings have been summarized, and next the seismic response analyses of the ground in the Port Island have been carried out. As a result, it has been presumed that that a thin and very soft clay layer within the ground of the Port island had demonstrated the same effect as a seismic base isolation device in the building during the Hyogoken-nambu earthquake.

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In this study, dynamic response analyses using sinusoidal input waves were conducted to investigate the effect of long period ground motions on the dynamic behavior of a long-span suspensnion bridge and the effectiveness of viscous dampers. It was found that resonance of the stiffened girder was generated by the sinusoidal input waves with the same frequencies of certain lower modes. Viscous dampers installed between the stiffened girder and the tower were found to be effective to reduce the resonance response in the longitudinal direction.

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In this study, a designed long-span suspension bridge tower using CFT (Concrete-Filled steel Tube) was compared with previously-investigated RC and steel towers in terms of economical and construction efficiencies. Besides, pushover analyses were performed to characterize the strength and ductility of the CFT tower. The results showed that the CFT tower had the potential to exceed in economical efficiency compared to other two types of towers and to have the almost same strength and ductility as the RC tower. Furthermore, it was found that enlargement of the diagonal members improved the strength and installation of shear-links improved the ductility, respectively.

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In this study, we discussed a seismic behavior of caisson type seawalls for controlled waste disposal using water proof sheets as seepage. Underwater shaking table tests with a scale of 1 to 12 model seawall were performed to examine the displacement of the caisson, the soils behind the caisson, and the water proof sheet during earthquake. The results show that the behavior of the water proof sheet during shaking was closely related with the behavior of the horizontal displacement of the caisson, and the residual strain in the sheet was the largest at the top of slope, in which the soil displacement was significant.

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The objective of this report is to propose the procedure to evaluate the characteristics of fragility specified for structure considering with site and source specific seismic action. First of all, limit states specified serious damaged rank associated with either reconstruction or repair of the structure are defined by the physical parameters which are possible to evaluate the structural and material properties. The uncertainty with respect to the response and the strength is evaluated quantitatively. The seismic action is evaluated by considering not only the uncertaily for modeling soil properties but also the source specfic input motion considering the uncertainty of rapture process on the fault.

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The purpose of this paper is to study the effects of the restrainer gap and the rubber-type shock absorber on the peak response of the existing long-span girder bridge that has bearings vulnerable to strong earthquake ground motion. The restrainer and the stool with the sliding plate are proposed to be installed as the backup bearing in case of the existing bearing failure. The seismic response analysis considering the existing bearing failure is conducted. The study shows that the restrainer gap enables the peak response displacement of the fixed-side column to decrease because of the seismic isolation effect, and that the shock absorber can reduce the peak response reaction forces of the restrainer.

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In the dynamic analyses of bridges, the foundations are generally modeled by the sway-rocking spring elements. The constant values of the damping factors are assumed without considering the difference of foundation types and soil conditions. However, The values of the damping factors vary depending on the foundation types and soil conditions. The reasonable method to determine the value of the damping factors is required.
In this research, numerical analyses simulating foundation vibration by 3-D FEM and SR model methods are performed to compare the real bridges vibration and to identify the damping factors of various types of foundations.

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This paper is to study the site-specific earthquake ground motion for the seismic design of shield tunnel. The site-specific earthquake ground motion is studied based on the fault model. Then, the seismic performance of shield tunnel in the longitudinal direction is estimated for the peak ground strain. The peak ground strain is approximated to sinusoidal wave and compared with the current manual's wave. As a result, sinusoidal wave length of the fault model is longer than the current manual's.

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It has become a standard procedure recently that some of source parameters, such as area and stress drop of asperities, of a scenario earthquake are evaluated based on short period level of acceleration source spectrum. The short period level, however, is usually not taken into account in probabilistic seismic hazard analyses. The present study introduces short period level of each earthquake into probabilistic seismic hazard analyses utilizing attenuation relationships that include the short period level as one of variables.

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Recently, magnitude of earthquake and location of epicenter have come to be estimated urgently in 3-4 seconds based on the observed data of P-wave. Earthquake information estimated urgently is termed the early earthquake warning. And, , an arrival time and an intensity of S-wave can be estimated and informed before an attack of main shock. In this study, we have developed an immediate evaluation method for earthquake damage of dams by combining the early earthquake warning and a 3-D dynamic analysis. As a result, the earthquake damage of dams can be evaluated by the method proposed within one second. This method is useful to mitigate not only human disaster but also physical damage by earthquakes.

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This paper proposes a technique to set occurring probability of buried rupture earthquakes. It is required for probabilistic hazard estimation. As the earthquake magnitude is getting larger, the rupture area and the dislocation of the fault is getting larger following the self-similar scaling law. Estimated surface deformation due to the fault dislocation is also getting larger according to earthquake magnitude. Setting a threshold of surface deformation whether it is able to be or not to be detected, we can evaluate probability of a surface rupture earthquake at a given magnitude. Proposing moderate threshold of the surface deformation is a main aim of this paper. After introducing earthquake occurrence probability derived from local seismicity, we can evaluate occurring probability of a buried earthquake. The technique proposed in this paper will contribute for accurate estimation of earthquake hazard with treating earthquakes due to buried faults and earthquakes due to active faults separately.

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, and Prevention of areas becoming cut-off by earthquakes is one of the most important countermeasures against urban seismic disasters. Isolated areas are caused primarily by damage to road bridges due to earthquake. Urgent seismic retrofit of existing road bridges is, therefore, necessary for us to prevent such bridges from seismic damage. For determinating the order of priority of seismic retrofit of bridges, this isolated area problem must not be neglected. From the above view, we developed a method for importance assessment of existing road bridges which places priority upon the prevention of areas becoming isolated and applied this method to Tokushima city.

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The design of embankment, change to the performance design based on residual displacement from a design according to the safety factor is considered. Not only in the design of embankments but also in earth structure, the heterogeneity of the ground is usually disregarded. However, since the actual ground has heterogeneity, it needs to consider the influence that the heterogeneity has on the earthquake-proof stability of embankment. Therefore, it needs to consider the influence that it has on the earthquake-proof stability of embankment. This research performs reliability analysis in calculation of the safety factor and residual displacement of embankment.

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Recently, the wind turbine generator systems have positively been introduced as one of the clean energy in many countries. This movement spreads even in Japan. The investigation of seismic safety of these systems for level 2 earthquake seems to be an important problem with the extension of the facility popularization. Recently, screw piles which show excellent performance for the drawing resistance have been used in towering structures such as wind turbine generator systems, in which huge overturning moments occurred for wind and earthquake.
In this study, by using characteristics of screw pile confirmed from the experiment conducted by authors, dynamic analysis of this system for the level 2 earthquake ground motions is carried out to clarify the effectiveness of screw piles. The usefulness of the screw piles is examined by comparing with the straight piles.

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A dataset of instrumental seismic intensities recoreded in Gifu prefecture, central Japan, during 2000-2004 has been compiled. An average difference between recoreded seismic intensities and those estimated using the attenuation equation was defined as an index representing the site amplification; standard deviation and number of observations were also used. On this basis, site-specific characteristics which affect observed seismic intensities have been quantified. However, ratings of setting conditions of seismometers have had equivocal effects on observations. Besides Gifu prefecture, nationwide analysis should be made to develop knowledge on seismic intensity and to utilize it fully for future earthquakes.

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AVS30 derived from geomorphological land classifications has been widely used to evaluate amplification factor of subsurface layer and to calculate distribution of ground motion intensity. Natural period of subsurface layer, T_G, is also considered important in seismic design of public works such as highway bridges. Seismic design ground motion for highway bridges has been set up based on ground classification determined by T_G. This paper presents a procedure for evaluation of TG based on the geomorphological land classification and discusses its validity.

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Recent damaging earthquakes have clearly revealed that retrofitting low earthquake-resistant structures is the key issue for earthquake disaster reduction. However, homeowners have various reasons why they do not decide to retrofit their houses. In order to propose more effective retrofitting promotion system based on residents' needs, a questionnaire survey was conducted for homeowners in the Kanto region with respect to their disaster awareness and factors that affect decision-making of retrofitting. Based on a result, some suggestions are presented to improve the current situation surrounding homeowners.

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It is important to estimate detailed 3-D subsurface structure for strong ground motion simulation. Ground motions are controled by ground parameters such as layer thickness, P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density. In the most of past studies, detailed model of density structures is not fully included in the estimation of velocity structures. In this case, the small estimation error of the density may lead the large error of the velocity structure. Thus, we propose a method to estimate subsurface structure using gravity and microtremor data simultaneously. We applied the proposed method to synthetic data of gravity and microtremor, and confirmed its appropriateness.

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Recognizing the complementary nature of probabilistic and scenario-based methods for seismic hazard assessment, this paper addresses the framework to integrate the two methods to exploit their advantages for better practice of seismic design and risk management. Advantages, disadvantages, and technical challenges to overcome in each method have been enumerated based on the current state-of-the-art. Post-events examination of the two methods has been made to compare their performance on evaluation of peak seismic intensities in recent major earthquakes in Japan. Toward the advanced seismic hazard assessment, technical exchanges between probabilistic and scenariobased approaches in terms of data and methodologies, as well as their results, are strongly suggested.

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A rational design method of an unseating prevention cable is not established yet especially for that with a shock absorber. This study aims to clarify a dynamic property of an unseating prevention cable with a shock absorber considering its deformation limit and nonlinearity. The results show that the shock absorber can be designed according to the law of conservation of energy. New check procedure for the cable to support the falling girder is also shown in this paper. Large inelastic shock absorber enables to use a thin cable, however, the thin cable is not capable to stop the girder from falling even with its damping effect.

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Because vertical seismic motion of the Hyogoken-nanbu (1995) and Niigataken-chuetsu (2004) earthquake was very powerful, it could be important to estimate the influence of structural damage on the investigated system by vertical seismic motion. However, the effects aren't considered sufficiently into account the design standard of embankments. So, in this study, we proposed the modified Newmark method with consideration of vertical seismic motion and carried out parametric study by adopting a lot of strong horizontal and vertical ground motions.
This paper shows that as for the earthquake whose epicentral distance is comparatively short, seismic permanent displacement of embankments becomes large by taking account of vertical seismic motion.

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In order to maintain citizen's lifestyle during and after an earthquake disaster, we need to improve and upgrade our water supply network and pipelines. In this paper, in advance of replacing pipeline network, we attempt to quantitatively analyze the superiority of the block distribution system, which is suitable for efficient water supply control and management, and limits damage area in disaster, and compare it to a non-block distribution pipeline network, which uses simple pipeline network models. And using these results and a cost-benefit analysis, we show the benefit derived from the reduction of damage is larger than the cost of replacing aged pipes.

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Present paper proposes two types of methods to estimate peak ground acceleration (PGA) based on questionnaire survey. The first method is to estimate PGA based on the method of estimating seismic intensity by questionnaire survey. The value of coefficient for seismic intensity is transferred to that for PGA using the relationshop between seismic intensity and PGA. The second methos is to estimate PGA using the questionnaire answer on TV motion during an earthquake. The TV motion and PGA relation are developed besed on results of DEM analysis. Both of proposed methods are applied to the area close to seismometer. The estimated PGA by the proposed methods were corresponding to observed PGA.

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It is necessary to consider the wave propagating effect in the seismic design of long underground structures. In most cases, this effect is modeled as the phase delay of input ground motions. In this study, the input ground motions at many points were generated directly from the fault model, and the mechanism of phase difference occurrence was investigated. Furthermore, response soil strains of the irregular soil layer models subjected to different types of waves were calculated by use of FEM. These were (1) waves without phase difference, (2) waves considering phase difference and (3) waves generated from fault model. It was found that the results obtained from waves with phase difference have a problem in accuracy of the maximum strain compared to the waves directly generated from fault model.

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This paper describes results of centrifuge model tests on an abutment and its numerical analyses installed with three types of countermeasures, sheet-pile on supported ground, nailing on backfill and sheet-pile together with nailing. Centrifuge model tests with similitude of 1/50 and its numerical analyses are carried out. It is concluded that the effectiveness of coutemeasures in turn is sheet-pile together with nailing, sheet-pile and nailing based on the residual movement of abutment and residual settlement of backfill. The required reinforcing force for nailing is rationally determined combined with the relationships between reinforcing force mobilized and residual settlement of backfill.

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Evaluation method of interaction between structure and ground is an important subject in seismic design for long underground structures. Authors has been discussed the seismic displacement method in which input ground displacement is calculated by using free ground model. But, the method has the possibility to have difference between analyses and real behavior in the case where the ground is irregular or structures like shaft and joints are inserted in the tunnel. From this point of view, authors compared the results by the 3-D FEM analysis with those by the seismic displacement method, and investigated the modeling of structures and joints.

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A huge number of landslides induced by the Chuetsu earthquake caused a total of 233 segments of national and prefectural routes in Higashiyama mountain area to be closed to traffic, and total 61 village areas were completely isolated. Since railway and road facilities follow closely the motions of soil, damage to these facilities must be discussed in terms of soil deformations that they experienced. This report highlights cases of some tunnels.

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It is an important issue to estimate pipeline damage with high accuarracy and to implement earthquake countermeasures based on it. We analyzed damage factors in a model case of the 2003 Tokachi-Oki Earthquake, and proposed estimation method of water pipe damage by Knowledge discovery in database (KDD) method. Furthermore, the proposed method was applied to the suffered area in the 2004 Niigata Chuetsu earthquake and it was examined its accuracy. Based on the estimation method, damage location can be specified in terms of small mesh of the area.

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In order to elucidate the seismic vulnerability of Western of Liao Ning Province (Jinzhou city), China, based on its surface ground motion, the micro tremor measurements were carried out at 75 points in the center area which spans 100 sq. (10km x10km), and the PS exploration tests at two area. From these date, the predominant frequencies of the ground were evaluated by the Fourier spectra of each components (NS, EW, and UD), and Fourier spectra ratio (NS/UD and EW/UD).
The north of Jinzhou city (A-zone) shows a predominant frequency rang of 5Hz-18Hz and the south of it shows a predominant frequency rang of 2Hz-4Hz. The shear velocity of the surface ground was about 180m/s. The fundamental frequencies of the typical buildings (The international communication center of Liaoning Institute of Technology) Moreover, the seismic response analyses of typical structure of Jinzhou city due to the observed earthquake motion of Kobe were performed, and the dynamic behaviors were estimated. These results will be useful for seismic disaster mitigation in Western of Liao Ning Province.

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Model experiments of reverse fault rupture propagation through sand under 1-g conditions show that he D/H ratio for the same model height (40 cm) depends on the fault dip-angle, with the largest uplift is needed for a 60 dip-angle. This is explained with a simple elastic analysis together with the concept of a characteristic shear band development length, which is estimated from model experiments considering a constant peak to residual displacement along the shear band in biaxial tests. Soil anisotropy is also a contributing factor.

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