Objectives: To demonstrate some alternate ways of presenting and analyzing pretest-posttest control group designs relative to what is commonly done in exercise science. An emphasis is placed on using simple examples and avoiding statistical jargon to enhance readability for exercise scientists. Design & Methods: To examine some concerns with how within subject figures illustrate data, statistics to interpret when ana lyzing pretest-posttest control groups designs, how to analyze studies involving three time points or those including a third factor, and values to use when testing assumptions of statistical tests. Results & Conclusions: To improve interpretation of data, researchers assessing pretest-posttest control group designs should report the change score and variability of the change score as opposed to only reporting pre-test and post-test variabilities. When performing a 2 × 2 (group by time) mixed ANOVA the interaction term is the only statistic that needs to be interpreted and no follow-up tests are necessary. When assessing a third time point, the most informative follow-up tests to a significant 3 × 2 (time by group) ANOVA involves performing all three 2 × 2 (time by group) interactions to keep the within subject nature of the data. When including a third factor (in addition to the time and group variables), researchers may wish to compute change scores to eliminate the factor of time and allow for the change to be directly assessed. When examining the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance, it is important that the change scores meet the assumptions as opposed to the pre-test and post-test measures.

Adaptation energy was proposed by Hans Selye as a working hypothesis to explain the exhaustion phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), which resulted in loss of adaptation and death following exposure to various noxious agents (e.g., morphine, atropine, formaldehyde) in rodents. Despite being the mechanistic explanation behind his experimental findings, Selye was inconsistent in defining what “adaptation energy” was. Objective: To examine the evidence behind adaptation energy and the importance this concept has in the understanding of the GAS. In addition, we review relevant applications of adaptation energy in the understanding of adaptations to resistance exercise. Design & Methods: The experimental work of Hans Selye and sports science literature applying his findings was reviewed. Results/Conclusions: The concept of adaptation energy was mentioned in early publications linking Selye’s GAS to resistance exercise, however, modern applications appear to disregard his experiments (rodent studies) and his mechanistic explanations (adaptation energy). It seems unlikely that adaptation energy can explain adaptation and acute responses to exercise. Instead, the concept of adaptation energy appears to share similarities with some theories of aging. Overall, it is unclear if “adaptation energy” exists and if it warrants further discussion to help understand its application.

Objectives: Previous investigations have shown that differences exist between positional groups within a team, which has led to more specific methods of training to enhance performance for that positional group during competition. The purpose of this investigation was to examine anthropometric and physical performance measures between these two classifications of baseball pitchers. Design and Methods: Twenty professional pitchers completed a battery of test including anthropometrics, body composition, vertical jump, sprint cycling, and shuttle run. All testing was performed during the preseason prior to the start of competition. Independent sample t-tests were performed on each variable between starters and relievers. Results: Significant differences were seen between starters and relievers in height (p < 0.05). No other variables showed statistically significant differences, though moderate effect sizes were present for sprint cycling and shuttle run times. Conclusion: Findings of this investigation lend support to training pitchers in a similar manner as no differences were seen been groups based on physical performance and anthropometric.

Objective: To evaluate the relationship between backward overhead medicine ball (BOMB) throw and power snatch throw (PST). Design and Methods: NCAA Division-II college football players (n = 23; age = 21.0 ± 1.4 yrs, height = 184.6 ± 6.0 cm, weight = 105.6 ± 19.0 kg) were evaluated for 5 BOMB throws and 3 PSTs. PST was measured by an accelerometer attached to a specially designed Smith machine with a hydraulic catch system that allowed release of the bar at the top of the movement. A standard weight of 62.5 kg was used for PST in all players, with the best of 3 throws used to represent PST (1,737 ± 337 W). The BOMB test was performed using an 8-kg rubber medicine ball, with the best throw used for analysis (15.74 ± 1.88 m). Results: Regression selected BOMB throw to estimate PST [PST (W) = 134.89 BOMB (m) – 441.6, r = 0.73, SEE = 233 W, CV% = 13.6%). Smallest worthwhile change (SWC) for the BOMB throw was 0.79 m or 5.1% to indicate meaningful improvement. Conclusion: The higher correlation (r = 0.73, p < 0.001) between BOMB and PST than previously noted for vertical jump power (r = 0.63) supports the BOMB throw as a measure of overall power. Thus, the BOMB throw can provide a cost effective and time-saving test to assess total body explosive power.

Objectives: The relationship between force-time characteristics obtained from isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and endurance running performance has not been studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between force-time characteristics obtained from IMTP with indicators of endurance running performance. Design and Methods: Participants attended a familiarisation session to be familiarised with all testing protocols. Subsequently, they completed the IMTP and a 2.4-km run time trial (2.4-kmTT) on the first testing session. Post 48-72 h of the first session, they then performed a running economy (RE) test at 12 km.h^‒1 and graded exercise test on the second testing session. Results: Significant inverse correlations between all IMTP measures and 2.4kmTT was observed (r = -0.53 to -0.78, p < 0.01). Similarly, all IMTP measures were significantly correlated to maximal aerobic speed (r = 0.38 to 0.66, p < 0.05) except Force at 150 ms. There were significant correlations between IMTP peak force, net peak force and rate of force development (0-150 ms) with lower limb stiffness (r = 0.41 to 0.49, p < 0.05). Force at 100 ms and all rate of force development measures were significantly correlated to RE (r = -0.44 to -0.68, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Findings showed that measures obtained from IMTP are good indicators of endurance running performance and can provide insights into the force generating capability required by endurance runners. In addition, the significant correlations between strength measures and running performance suggest that muscular strength may be an important determinant of running performance.

Total lean body mass (LBM) is related to the absolute load lifted in the bench press in powerlifters with physical disabilities, but the relationship between relative performance and regional LBM is unknown. Objectives: The purpose of this pilot study was to 1) examine the regional body composition characteristics of competitive powerlifters with physical disabilities and 2) to determine the relationships between relative performance and regional LBM in these powerlifters. Design: Cross-sectional, descriptive study. Methods: Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans were obtained on 11 powerlifters with physical disabilities along with competition performance on 9 athletes. Total and regional LBM values were indexed relative to height (kg/m²). Results: A strong, significant, relationship was observed between AH (Haleczko) bench press score and LBM index in the arm region (rho = 0.787; p = 0.015) but not in the trunk (rho = 0.583; p = 0.108), legs (rho = 0.042; p = 0.922), or total body (rho = 0.617; p = 0.086). Conclusions: These results suggest LBM accretion in the arms may be most beneficial for powerlifting performance for those with physical disabilities.