Ibn Taimiya (d. 728/1328) is known as a detractor of the ijma'. The previous studies have concluded that Ibn Taimiya recognizes only the validitiy of the ijma' of the sahaba with textual evidences from the Qur'an and hadith. But the survey of his usage of the ijma' in one of his major works, the Minhdj as-sunna, shows that he refers to various kinds of ijma', such as that of scholars (‘ulama’), wisemen (‘uqala’) and others in addition to that of the sahaba all with affirmative judgement. This result does not conform to that of the previous studies. In order to understand integrally his thought, his texts from which the conclusion is drawn should be interpreted otherwise. The texts in which he discusses the ijma' of the sahaba and which are used by the previous scholars as the proof for their thesis are essentially of apologetic nature, and his aim is to demonstrate that the sahaba (and ahl al-hadith) are the sole legitimate heir of the impeccable Prophet, and accordingly that the sahaba as a whole is infallible. He does not discuss the ijma' in general, but the ijma' of the sahaba in particular. What Ibn Taimiya intends to prove is the infallibility of the sahaba, not of the ijma'. The discussion of the ijma' in general is out of his concern, for such a discussion is specific to the kaldm-oriented usul al-figh which he criticizes severely.

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In my last paper [in The World of Islam, Nos. 33/34, 1990] on the controversies over the orthodoxy of Wahdah al-wujud in the late Mamluk period, I pointed out that most of the sufis were within the ‘orthodox’ and that in this period we find no ‘ulama’ vs sufi schema.
In this article I take up Ibn Taymiyah's comprehension of tasawwuf for enlargement of my last study. It is fact that Ibn Taymiyah, who belongs to the early Mamluk period, severely criticized Wahdah al-wujud and some popular sufi practices, but he was not against tasawwuf itself.
He divides sufis into three groups as follows; (1) ‘true’ sufis who worship only Allah, (2) sufis who observe legal (shar'i) manners in their practices, and (3) superficial sufis who follow some customs without understanding of their true meaning. He puts his own position in the first group, and from this inner standpoint he criticizes other sufis such as those of Ahmadiyah-Rifa'iyah Tariqah, who belong to the third group, for their innovation and deviation from shari'ah, and demands their repentance. According to his view, Wahdah al-wujud goes outside of this framework of sufis. So his criticism on Wahdah al-wujud was not against tasawwuf, rather his aim was to defend ‘true’ tasawwuf as he thinks it.
From this and the last study, we can conclude that nobody was against tasawwuf itself in the Mamluk period with the only exception of Wahdah al-wujud, which was criticized as philosophy by some, not all, thinkers.

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The Sunnite jurisprudence defines the rbellion as "revolt against the ruler by force according to their ta'wil." Jurists come to this notion through their understanding of the wars following the death of the Prophet. Ibn Taimiya says that they confound wars of three different categories, i.e., Abu Bakr's wars against the Apostates, the Civil wars, and 'Ali's wars against the Kharijite, and consequently they consider all of them revolts against the ruler, and that subjugating them is obligatory, if they persist. Ibn Taimiya criticizes this conception, and says that the apostates and Kharijite must be subjugated, but as to civil wars, withdrawal from them is better. According to Ibn Taimiya, jurists' idea of "rebellion" stems from this confusion, and it is supposed to be treated as a civil war from which muslims had better abstain. Ibn Taimiya does not only criticize jurists, but also presents his alternative, which is "deviation from the shari'a," namely, muslims must fight not "rebels against a certain ruler," but "factions deviating from the shari'a."

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ベトナムの

村でメタン発酵により生成されるバイオガスをさまざまな形態のエネルギーとして利用するとともに，消化液を液肥として水田で利用する実証研究を行っている。SWOT分析により，農家，消費者，社会に望ましい課題解決の方向性が整理された。また，実証研究の経験から，資源循環型の営農方式への変更を考慮した生産基盤整備，農畜産業の残さや資源作物からのエネルギー回収と農業利用，アクアポニクスや藻類培養のための栄養源としての低濃度の消化液の利用など，わが国の農業や農業農村整備事業へ再生資源の利活用を組み込むためのヒントが得られた。地場産のエネルギーや資材を利用するスマートビレッジの構築に向かいたい。

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İmâm Birgivî (d. 981/1573) is universally recognized to have inspired the seventeenth century Islamic reform movement called the Ḳadzadeli movement. Several studies have been conducted on this movement ; however, little is known about Birgivî's thoughts, especially his attitude towards Taṣawwuf (Sufism), and therefore, discussion on this particular topic is difficult. This paper aims to discuss Birgivî's concept of Taṣawwuf and its link to social ethics. Birgivî's Taṣawwuf firmly followed the Quran, Sunna and Shaī‘ra, and he strongly condemned the deviated Sufis who never respected these laws. In his magnum opus al-Ṭarīqa al-Muḥammadyah (The Path of Muḥammad), he emphasizes the importance of controlling outer Muslim practices and the inner heart, stating that the latter is of utmost importance for all Muslims, since the heart is where all deeds originate. Birgivî's Taṣawwuf focuses on these ethical aspects. To provide an elaborate discussion on Birgivî's perspective of Taṣawwuf, this paper focuses on his criticism not only against Sufis but also against the 'ulama' (jurists). Birgivî tackled the issue of asking money in return for reciting the Quran, which often caused a judicial problem between the people and 'ulama'. He denied its legitimacy not only from a strict Hanafi perspective but also from the perspective of Taṣawwuf stating that the corruption of the hearts of the 'ulama' was behind the issue. He believed that a "true" Sufi who deals with the science of ethics (‘ilm al-akhlāq) could fix this corruption. This study shows that Birgivî's discourse on Taṣawwuf is not limited to the discussion of the thoughts and practices of Sufis but it also covers judicial issues. Birgivî believed that a Sufi is someone who has mastered the science of ethics, and who attempts to solve various social issues related to the inner corruptions of Muslims.

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Jihad is one of the most controversial concepts in the Islamic political thought. This paper shed light on two dominant trends in the theories of Jihad in Modern Islamic World. Modernist thinkers, on the one hand, were concerned with political consequences of waging Jihad against the Western Powers and devised a theory intended to avoid the implementation of Jihad doctrine in the modern international arena. This “avoidance theorists” conducted meticulous research on the history of early Islam and forcefully concluded each and every wars and conflicts fought by the prophet Muhammad and his disciples were acts of selfdefense. By doing so, modernist thinkers presented Islam as an entity reconcilable with international laws and norms. Fundamentalist thinkers, on the other hand, criticized the modernist thinkers and its “subservient” style. Fundamentalists are not opposed to the “defensive” nature of Islam but expanded the concept of “defense” beyond the ordinary bound and redefined it to encompass fighting to root out the un-Islamic political and social institutions and entities from the earth. Although political implications of the two trends are diametrically opposed to each other, theoretically they are mutually supporting, at least in part. Modernists have paved the way to supremacist notion of Jihad by definitively approving the historical acts of war by the early Muslim nation as totally defensive and righteous. Fundamentalists rode on this theory and expanded the realm of the “defense” to such an extent that even most of the offensive warfare can be legitimized as “defense” in the context of eternal struggle for the sake of the cause of spreading Islam.

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市町村のごみ担当部局では，廃棄物の減量・資源化の方法として，家庭での食品廃棄物の堆肥化や水切りを啓発している。しかし，実際の堆肥化の可能性や水切りによる減量効果についてはよく把握しないまま啓発が続けられている場合が少なくない。そこで，家庭から排出される食品廃棄物の排出実態を，1袋ごとに展開して把握し，その結果を統計的に整理した。その結果，食品廃棄物はレジ袋に入れて排出されることが多く、未利用食品の排出が食品廃棄物の排出量の増加に寄与することがわかった。さらに，未利用食品の排出は，全体の2割の世帯で8割の未利用食品を排出していることがわかった。また，水切り袋を排出する際にレジ袋に包んで排出したり，二重三重に包んだりする割合が多いことがわかった。そこで，家庭へのごみ減量の啓発の際には，水切りを啓発すると同時に水切り後にレジ袋に入れずに排出することをPRしていくことが望まれる。

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イスラーム世界全般に見られる(聖者)廟参詣は、これまで専ら文化人類学的研究の対象とされてきた。それらは、廟参詣を「公的」イスラームとは異なるものとして捉え、一般信者による「民衆的」行為として語ることが多い。しかしながら、イスラームには廟参詣を教義的イスラームと深く関わるものとして捉える事例も存在している。その一例として本論が採りあげるのが、十二イマーム・シーア派のイマーム廟参詣理論である。同派のイマーム廟参詣は、単なる墓参りではなく、「原初的過去からの伝統の継承」であり、「イマーム性の原理の確認行為」であり、そこから得られる報酬は、シーア派信者としての義務を果たした結果得られる正当な権利と理解されている。同派のイマーム廟参詣は、民衆による自発的実践行為であると同時に、「イマーム」に関わる点において、知識人側からも綿密な理論化を受けたものであり、正式なイスラームの信仰行為として展開されているものである。

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