Generally, ball games are classified into several types such as “goal type,” “net type,” or “baseball type,” based on the close relationship among the tactical behaviors of attacking and defending. In this approach, some games are selected as representative activities to teach the typical tactical behavior of “how” to attack and defend. Then, “what” is an offense or defense? Are they essentially just function constructed to act as products of interaction between opposing sides? This paper clarifies the connotations of the words “offense” and “defense” in a game from an epistemological perspective.

Any type of game has one of the two distinctive objectives: transferring either the ball or the player to the destination. The ball transferring action is interpreted as any one of the two opposing task-executions: ball-possession or ball-progression. The game proceeds only with ball-progression when a player secures the ball. If ball-possession is indefinite, then the game’s task-executions proceed in either a parallel or a cyclical way. A cyclical way can in turn be differentiated into the “united type” or “divided type.” On the other hand, the transfer of a player is regarded as an advance-tag between a runner and ball-holder.

Considering these features, the state of such a task-execution helps us distinguish one game from the others. Further, it is actualized that the classification of games is not established objectively but constructed intersubjectively among the concerned persons.

These findings as the universal theory of games provide an original and deliberated classification in which we specify the content that is to be learned. Consequently, this will help teachers improve their physical education lessons wherein many different kinds of games have to be handled.

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The essential component of ball games is competition for the uncertain outcome. Clarifying the structure of the games with the viewpoint of players, this article argues for a theoretical framework to grasp the relations among the objective of competition, the task of competition, and the method selected for task-solving.
Although there are several types of ball games, all of them include one of two distinct objectives: ballprogressing to an objective point or movement of an individual player to an objective point. Ball or player progression is accomplished through conflicts between offense and defense or the activity of an individual player.
Considering these elements, the process of task-solving can be classified into four types: “target-shooting”, “breakthrough”, “breakthrough ± target-shooting”, and “breakthrough ± base-advance”. Each type of task-solving reveals a fundamental learning content of the game. Furthermore, based on the layered structure of defensive interface and the selected method of ball- progressing corresponding to that structure, several types of confrontation between offense and defense can be distinguished: “separation”, “confusion”, “cross-border”, and “alternation”.
Those findings promote curricular conversion from “athletic event priority” to “learning contents priority” in teaching ball games.

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Although there are several types of ball games, the essential component in all such games is a competition leading to a future unknown result. Clarifying the structure of games based on the objective of competition, the competitive task, and the method selected for such task-solving, this article argues for a new theory of classification for ball games.
Ball games include two distinct procedures: active competition aimed at influencing the unknown future result and the imposition of an agreed upon organization for scoring and timing of play period. The objective of the active competition phase consists of engaging in one of the following enterprises: ball-progressing (or multiple ball progressing in the case of golf or bowling) to an objective point or individual player movement to an objective point. Ball and player progressing is accomplished through offensive or defensive group or individual activity.
Considering these elements, ball games can be classified into three categories: breakthrough games, target-shooting games, and base-running games. Furthermore, based on the layered structure of defensive interface and the selected method of ball-progressing corresponding to that structure, breakthrough games were further divided into five sub categories.
Those findings provide a model for physical education teachers attempting to utilize the ball game as teaching material.

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With an aim to improve the course of physical educations, a basic study was made on the preconditions to determine what kind of ball games is suitable as the teaching subject. First, we reviewed the major classification theories on exercises including ball games to clarify the present status of the field. Second, the backgrounds of those classifications were investigated and the ball games defined by “the course of studies” were examined from the respective classifications to find problems in them.
In this study, six classification theories for exercise proposed by 1) M. Udo, 2) K. Gaulhofer, M. Streichers, 3) T. Takahashi, 4) G. Stiehler, 5) H. Dobler and 6) Y. Sato were examined and the following results were obtained: the classifications were grounded on six viewpoints, 1) arrange the classification standard, 2) exercise principle, 3) tactical action, 4) tactics, 5) game concept, and 6) moving formation of tactics, respectively. They are a classfication based on the ball games level and not on the development of exercise ability which would become useful in future.
For execise learning, it is obviously impossible to let pupils acquire an exercise task without understanding it in the sensorimorter level under the conditions of practical guidance. Therefore, it seems necessary to classify execises from not only the ball games level but also sensorimorter ones. Namely, “a classfication based on an education system” should be made from viewpoints of learning theory for exercises so that a new curriculum for ball games is constructed on the basis of the classification viewpoints.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the results and seedings of competitions in short track speed skating. The seeding points and the final points in men's events of the world short track speed skating championships from 1978 to 1996 were analysed. And the results of the winner, the third, the eighth and the sixteenth in the total standings were analysed.

The conclusions of this study were as follows:

1)The seeding in the 1000 meters is affected by the results of the former events such as 1500 meter sand 500 meters in championship-style competitions.

2)In the ranking decided by the seeding points in championship-style competitions, a higher accumulation of seeding points in 1500 meters or 500 meters leads to a rise in one's total standing.

3)In the ranking decided by final points in championship-style competitions, a higher total standing requires all-round abilitiy. Particularly, ability in 500 meters is regarded as the most important.

4)It is suggested that more specialized ability will be required in single-distance-style competitions such as the Olympic games than in championship-style competitions, since the drawing of each race is not affected by the results of another events opposite to the championship-style competitions.

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    Generally speaking, the designation “ball game" (Jap. kyugi) is used as a comprehensive term to describe those sports in which a ball plays a central role, usually as an object of dispute between opposing players or teams. In practice however, it is customary, indeed necessary, to draw distinctions between the different types of ball games - to consider them as independent - when involved in training activities or studies in a particular sport. Thus, a classification of the various sports gathered under the comprehensive term “ball game" is necessary when it comes to conducting research aimed at determining the similarities and differences between, or the uniqueness of, the tactics employed in the various types of ball games. Further, the development of programs of instruction or training for a specific ball game, or ball games generally, is, of necessity, dependent on various factors: an relationships to other games in term of strategic and tactical similarities, differences or uniqueness.

    This study uses the existing classifications for ball games as a basis for the formulation of a new system. The new classification has, at its root, an understanding of the function of the ball - the object of dispute - and the manner of dealing with it. As a consequence of this approach, it was possible to arrive at a clearer over-all classification of ball games.

    Research results indicated that, when the emphasis is on dealing with the ball, the following points should be used as standard criteria for the classification of ball games.

    1) Dealing with the ball as a team or as an individual.

    2) The size of the playing field.

    3) Ball games in which possession of the ball or right of priority to it is on the offensive side or on the defensive side.

    4) Ball games in which competition is for points gained within a set number of tries, attempts or times, games in which there is competition for points whithin a set time period, and games where there is competition to be the first to win a set number of points.

    5) Ball games in which opponents simultaneously occupy the area of a playing field and games in which this is not the case.

    6) Ball games with physical contact technique of physical contact and ball games whithout such physical contact technique of physical contact.

    A classification system using these crijeria makes it possible to identify the special tactics employed in the various games. From these, it is then possible to derive systematic generalizations.

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