Landscape architect F. L. Olmsted and architect H. H. Richardson collaborated on a number of schemes through 1860s into 1880s. The present paper pointed out thus attributed projects to the number of twenty three, as shown in Figure 1, and identified respective role in ten major conjoint works. Olmsted acted as an environmental mentor to Richardson, and led this most congenial architectural collaborator to cultivate the following framework of his professional career. 1) Pursuit for distinct architectural forms, corresponding to then uprising social forces - commercial core and outlining rural zones, 2) Search for the geological imagery, expressive of an American identity, and 3) Improvement of design methods in the use of bold rockwork. The resulting creative integration of two different design practices is to be ascribed to their mutual notion of effect of organic expression, which derived from the Picturesque tradition, and of a new art form or natural architecture based upon strictly American sources of inspiration ・ the land, as well as recognition of the new social environment.

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Mutually organized enterprise have had a long and snccessful history in American life insurance business. In theory, mutuals, without capital item in its balance-sheet, are owned by and operated for the benefit of the policyowners, and their boards of directors or “trustees” are elected by them, typically exemplified by the original Charter and By-Laws of the Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York, the first mutual in the United States. But in practice, officers and directors of mutuals, although claiming democracy of their companies, have completely ignored the sovereignty of policyowners, who have consequently been silent majority for nearly one and a half century.
The third president of the Mutual Life usurped the control through proxy contests and established his autocracy, so-called “Winston regime”. He and his vice-president held so many proxies, compared to “Children of Israel, ” that no one succeded in defeating his rule. Management control were dramatically disclosed by the Armstrong Committee of the New York Legislature in 1905, saying “Notwithstanding their theoretical rights, policyholders have had little or no voice in the management. Entrenched behind proxies, easily collected by subservient agents and running for long periods, unless expressly revoked, the officers of these companies have occupied unassailable positions and have been able to exercise despotic power”. With all the drastic revision of the New York Insurance laws, nothing happened in the elections of mutuals except temporary excitement, and management control continued at no stands for more than thirty years later the Temporary National Economic Committee disclosed the fact. “Life Insurance executives and directors constitute a small group that is self-appointing and self-perpetuating”. Another thirty years-plus have passed since TNEC, and the situation remains the same. All the while mutual managements have been criticized and refuted in the courts, legislatures of the stastes and journals, it has been desparately impossible to find out an effective means to bring indifferent policyowners to annual elections.

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アメリカ合衆国における初期のパークシステムは, 公園と公園を結ぶレクリエーション系統計画としてではなく, それまで別々のものとして整備されてきた公園と街路を一つの系統としてとらえ, 良質の都市基盤整備を導入することにより, 計画的市街地開発を誘導し, あわせて良質な自然環境の保全をめざしたものであった。こうした都市基盤整備の考え方の萌芽となったものが, ブルックリン市におけるプロスペクト公園とパークウェイの整備であった。

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ニューヨーク市は、滞納税により取得した住宅の莫大な維持費を削減するため、競売にかけ営利企業に譲渡した。しかし、これにより滞納税が繰り返され、住宅の老朽化が進んだ。そこで、こうした事態回避のため、住宅は主に地元の営利企業や非営利団体に譲渡するように切り替えた。同市は、入居の継続を保証し、限定出資入居者協同組合の組織化を支援し、組合員に住宅を安価で譲渡している。また、一部の住宅はホームレスの入居も受け入れている。

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Up till now, it has been accepted that one factor sustaining the rapid economic growth of the United States was the existence of section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibiting tariffs on interstate commerce. The decision on Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) seems to be regarded as the final settlement of the problem of tariffs on interstate commerce, but in fact, although similar cases continued to appear frequently, they have been ignored. Despite the prohibition of tariffs, states continued to impose tariffs on goods from other states even after Gibbons v. Ogden, in order to protect their industries. This tendency grew even stronger after the Civil War, when there was a rapid development in interstate commerce due to the expansion of railroad traffic. Each state could impose taxes upon out-of-state products by virtue of the police power retained by the state government and acknowledged by the U.S. Supreme Court. However, the Supreme Court gradually came to interpret the constitution more strictly, and from the 1870s, increasingly confined the extent of the use of police power. Finally, in a series of cases between big business and individual states, it supported the former by ruling that the use of police powers to restrict the entry of out-of-state products was unconstitutional.

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The Central Park in New York City is the fist municipal urban park in U. S. A., established in 1858. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the role and influence of the Central Park from the point of view of the historical development of landscape architecture in U. S. A.
The following four points have analysed in this paper. First; the establishment of the Centeral Park caused a nation-wide municipal urban park movement and many big parks and park systems were created as infrasturcture of the city planning. Second; the planning concept of the Central Park was to create a wide pastoral scenery, within highly developed Urban environment, for the park was regarded as lungs of city and also it had a great contribution to citizen's recreation and welfare. Third; To accomplish the above ideal, the technique of civil engineering took a great role, especially on the thorough drainage system, and the separate road system. Fourth; New professional, “Landscape Architecture” was created from the construction of the Central Park.

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