The author is a pioneer in the study of shamanism. His interest dates from the presentation of his dissertationthesis : "The Religious Belief Proper to the Mongols-a Study of Shamanism" submitted to the Dept. of Oriental History at Tokyo University in 1917. His first research problem concerned the reason why the Mongols, who took up orthodox buddhism at their ascendancy, were converted into lamaism at the time of Khubilai Khan and also why they have remained so faithful to this cult. In the author's youth, however, academic circles did not regard shamanism as a legitimate and worthwhile topic for scientific investigation, and he encountered many obstacles. The donation of the Morrison Library in 1917 and the founding of the Toyo Bunko (Oriental Library) in 1924, as well as the development of field research by Japanese scholars on the peoples of the continent, changed the atmosphere. The study of shamanism has gradually become a favorite topic both in ethnological and historical studies.

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1）神奈川県大磯町丘陵にて2014 年07 月から2016年03月までの期間、メジロ Zosterops japonicus とウグイス Horornis diphone の鳴き出し時間とそれに続く鳴き声の頻度を聞き取りにより求めた。また太陽高度と天気から両種の繁殖期と非繁殖期（冬期）の鳴き出し水平面照度を推定した。

・メジロの鳴き出し時間と照度（平均± SD）：

繁殖期（ 4月〜7月）(n=19)：-18.3 ± 4.4 分、59.0 ± 67.5 Lx

冬　期（11月〜1月）(n=22)：-24.8 ± 7.9 分、21.7 ± 25.7 Lx

・ウグイスの鳴き出し時間と照度：

繁殖期（ 3月〜6月）(n=19)：-15.5 ± 4.0 分、　96.6 ± 86.4 Lx

冬　期（11月〜1月）(n=22)：-12.36 ± 10.37 分、201 ± 459 Lx

メジロの鳴き出し照度はウグイスに比べ繁殖期も冬期も安定しており、概日時計制御の入力である照度依存が高いと思われる。

2）2015 年の繁殖期の囀りは日の出時刻を基準に、ウグイスでは-18.3 ± 4.4 分に囀り出し、観察終了の日の出後90 分まで早朝も囀り続けた。他方、メジロは-18.8 ± 3.5 分から+6.1 ± 6.4 分まで続けて囀ったが、それ以降の早朝は極端に回数が減った。 囀りの長さは25.0 ± 5.6 分であった。

3）メジロとウグイスの早朝の囀りの違いの理由として配偶様式の差があると考えられる。社会的にも遺伝的にも一夫一妻制のメジロは番い関係が強く、番いで営巣、抱卵、育雛を行うメジロはオスがなわばり維持のための夜明けだけ囀り、早朝囀せず子育てに貢献していると考えられる。他方、一夫多妻制のウグイスはオスが交尾となわばりの維持以外は繁殖に参加せず、育雛支援の機能もあるもののなわばりの維持とメス求愛のための囀りをやめないと解釈できる。

4）ウグイスもメジロも繁殖初期の囀りは夜明けも早朝も断続的だがその意味は異なるかもしれない。その意味はメジロでは繁殖成功率に直結する営巣場所選定のためのなわばり確定と確保のため、ウグイスではなわばり確保を兼ねた囀りの練習のためかもしれない。この時期のメジロの囀りも短く、練習の可能性もある。

5）ウグイスは繁殖最盛期の5月17日に夜明け囀りも早朝囀りも乱れた。この日はホトトギスの渡来直後であり、托卵鳥の出現のせいかもしれない。

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The final object for our studies on population problems is how to improve the disharmony between the man and his environment from socio-biological point of view. The author tried a historical review on population theories ; most of them were approached from socio-economical view of point, but the biological considerations were always employed at the base of them. We have seen two outstanding debates concerning the population problems after the War in Japan ; the one being in relation with the population capacity and the other with the population control. The former is to inquire into the limit of population in which a established level of living could be maintained, and to make clear the real feature of overpopulation, especially in the light of the relationship between modern industry and rural population. The results of these inquiries had an effect to turn the general attention toward the social security system. The latter subject was taken up as a means to secure the people from the financial poverishment and sociological as well as biological deficiencies which would result from the free birth. Some fundamental researches were conducted by the Research Institute of Population Problems in Welfair Ministry, including the survey on the birth control practiced among urban and rural population, together with the status of sexual behavior of married couples. In Japan there are two characteristic types of society, the modernized urban society and the rather primitive rural one, and as a whole the increasing population confined in a limited territory presents serious fact which demands immediate and drastic study on and measures for population problems for the practical solution of the situation. The population problems involves many important subjects which are to be inquired by anthropologists from the view point of this field of science.

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1986年から1988年にかけ,長野県下の飯綱高原と軽井沢町発地において,オオジシギの日周活動と社会構造に関する調査を行った。調査は,鳴き声や飛翔について野外観察するとともに,捕獲して発信器をつけることによる追跡調査,アクトグラムによる行動解析を行った。オオジシギは,調査地には4月前半に渡来し,7月末頃まで留まった。計7個体を捕獲し発信器をつけて調査したが,多くは少なくとも1ヶ月近く定住していた。音声は4種類区別された。誇示飛翔などの音声活動は,日の出前と日没直後に活発で,日中や夜間にも活動のピークがみられる日もあった。朝夕の誇示飛翔は,個体ごと限られた地域内を旋回して行われ,互いに排他的で重なりはみられなかった。誇示飛翔域の形成と分布は,中心から周辺へといった同心円的な構造が認められた。日中の誇示飛翔は,排他性が弱く,隣接個体どうしが集団で広い地域を飛びまわって行われた。アクトグラムによる行動解析から,活動は24時間どの時間帯にもみられたが,朝夕に活動のピークがあり,夜間より日中の方が活動はさかんであった。採食を主とした地上での行動圏は,朝夕の誇示飛翔域よりも広く,個体ごとの重複がみられ,排他的ではなかった。巣は,2巣ともに湿原のふちで発見され,誇示飛翔や採食行動が行われた地域の外側であった。抱卵は,1個体のみによって行われ,その個体は誇示飛翔や鳴くことはしなかった。以上の点から,誇示飛翔を行う方が雄,これらを行わず抱卵する方が雌と判断された。オオジシギの繁殖形態は,雄が子育てに関係した行動をいっさいせず,特定地域に集合し,誇示飛翔を通し空中にアリーナを形成する,レックに近い形態である可能性が論じられた。

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This essay is based on the data of my field work in Sikkim carried out from 1st, Feb, 1955 to 31st, March, 1955. The present Sikkim plural societies are composed of mainly the following three peop1es; native Lepchas, Bhutias who migrated from Tibet and Bhutan in the 17th century and Nepalees who have constantly migrated from Nepal since the end of the 18th century. These three peoples are quite differentfrom each other in language, culture, social structure and religion. The present distributionof these three peoples in Sikkim are shown inMap2p, 19. The analysis wllich I deal with is arranged in two ways: problems in contacts between Lepchas and Bhutias and the same between Lepchas-Bhutias and Nepaless. Chapter II, which follows Chapter I, Introduction, deals with the formation of the Sikkim kingdom by the immigration of Bhutias from Tibet. The analysis of the early part of the History of Sikkim gives us ample information onintersting agpectg of the early contacts between native Lepchas and Bhutia immigrants and of the Tibetanization of Sikkim through Lamaism, which later became the political and cultural pattern of Sikkim. Chapter III gives the general economic backgroundof Sikkim, with the land system andcondition of cuitivators in past and present. The Sikkim land system was a kind of a fudalisticone before the land reform of 1951. The land was granted to the subjccts by the Maharaja asa reward for distinguished service and once granted land was succeeded hereditarily. These traditional land owners (whether they may bebhutia or Lepcha) were called kazi (aristocrats)and they were usually ministers or governors ofthe Sikkim Govemment. A feud usually contains several villages. The villagers are cultivators, whose status was that of a kind of slaves andthey were the subjects of their landlords. The method of cultivation in Sikkim was a shifting one but since the end of the 19th century it has changed gradually into the present method, terraced wet cultivation. Chapter IV is the study of the fullction of the Gompa (Lamaistic Monastery) and the descriptionand the characteristics of three different typesof plural societies in Sikkim where I had fieldwork: Phodang, Phensang and Pabyuk. Thereare 35 bigger monasteries in Sikkim registered at the Religious Ministry of the Sikkim Government. Each of these registered monasteries hasits area (parish) which includes several villages. Villagers of each paris11are called Zindha whichmeans those who have socialand religious protection from the Gompa, and at the same time have the duty to give economic aid (in kind, in cash and in labor) occasionally. The lives of the villagers are almost entirely regulated by the Gompa's activities. Villagers and a Gompa are closely interdependent on each other. However, the Gompa is not an independent institution, since Lamas have their families in the villageand they live in their houses not in the Gompa. The followings are three types of commmitiescentered on a Gompa, each of which represents a type of different Sikkim plural communities. A. PHODANG. This is one of the areas whereBhutias are dominant in Sikkim. The distribution of the household near the Gompa is shown in the Map. p.35 All of them (19 households) are of the Lams' families. This Lamas' community issurrounded by Bhutia laymen's communities which are included in the parish of the Phodang Gompa. These 19 Lamas' families which residenear the Gompa are divided into six differentlineage segments, each of which is closely related through kinship ties to the people of the Bllutiavillages round.

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