The ordinary phase of World War II ended in Asia with the triumph of the Allies over Japan. Among many countries in Asia, the triumph of Vietnam was unique. Its reasons are the following.
(1) Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia were French colonies and French rule was very severe.
(2) Vietnam was occupied by France and Japan from the invasion of the Japanese army in the winter of 1940 to the coup on March 3, 1945. It was a so called “double occupation”.
(3) After that coup, Japan gave independence to Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Of course, they were puppet governments of Japan. But it is true that the French role disappeared.
(4) The resistance groups against the double occupation had made a united front under the Viet-Minh (Vietnamese Independence League). A famous leader of this independent movement was Ho Chi Minh who had established the Indochina Communist Party in 1930.
(5) When Japan was defeated in August 1945, the Viet-Minh disarmed the Japanese army and seized political power. The Allies had not arrived in Vietnam yet.
(6) The Allies especially France insisted that they had won, so France had a right to come back to Vietnam. But on the other hand, the Viet-Minh insisted on their triumph over Japan. Therefore they called the end of the World War II in Vietnam the “August Revolution”.
The formation of order after the “August Revolution” was as complicated as the end of the war. The Viet-Minh regime asked the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Republic of China to recognize independence. But U. S. A. had forgotten Roosevelt's trusteeship plan of Indochina at that time. DeGaulle proclaimed the French were returning to Indochina. W. Churchill did not recognize the Viet-Minh's independence at all. Chiang Kai-shek wanted to make a pro-Chinese government in north Vietnam. Y. Stalin was not much concerned with the status of Vietnam.
On the one hand Ho Chi Minh's government (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) attempted to construct the new state, on the other it opposed reaggression of the French army with negotiations, because Ho Chi Minh expected generosity from the French government which was organized by his old friends. In the fall of 1946, clashes between the Viet-Minh army and the French army spread over the northern part of Vietnam. At the end of 1946, leaders of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam were determinded to fight with France again. The Indochina War broke out.

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This essay is aimed at clarifying what the mountain minorities of the Sino-Vietnamese frontier area had to do with the Vietnamese communist movement which eventually resulted in the August Revolution.
I. A brief sketch of Tay and Nung
Tay, whose population is 7, 400, 000, and Nung, 4, 700, 000, are ones of Thai tribes which are widely spread from southern China to Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Burma. After Thai tribes once established an independent kingdom during the years of mid 11th century in the Sino-Vietnamese frontier area, Ly dynasty was obliged to send Kinh (Vietnamse ethnic majority) mandarins and troops into its territory of this area, and this promoted the ‘Vietnamization’ of Thai people dwelling within Vietnamese border. Tay is a kind of Thai who was ‘Vietnamized’ in such a historical process.
Thai people who dwelled beyond the Sino-Vietnamese frontier were, to some extent, assimilated to Chinese culture and they are what we see now as Chuang. But there were some of the Chuang who, for some reason or other, came to migrate into Vietnam, and these people are what we call now Nung.
II. The birth of Tay communists
Among the ethnic minorities in Vietnam, Tay has been the most closely assimilated tribe to Kinh, the majority. Some of the Tay youth were able to receive the same education as the Kinh youth. Hoang Van Thu and Hoang Ding Giong were such Tay students when the movement of mourning for Phan Chu Trinh rose among the students in 1926, and the participation to this movement made their way to become revolutionaries. Under the purge by the French authority, they escaped into southern China, where they tried to contact with Viet Nam Thanh Nien Cach Mang Dong Chi Hoi, the youth revolutionary organization established by Nguyen Ai Quoc in 1925. Thu and Giong accumulated various experiences during their stay in Chinese territory, such as enlisting in KMT Army, running a little factory, etc. Though there were many Vietnamese, not only Tay and Nung but also Kinh, who were assimilated to Chuang society after their escape into south China, some, like Thu and Giong, were not assimilated and kept their identity as Vietnamese. This was because of their consciousness of their purpose, Vietnamese revolution. In December 1929, they established a cell of the Communist Party. They became the earliest communists of the minorities in Vietnam.
III. Party construction in Viet-Bac region
Though the ICP had to suffer great regression after Nghe-Tinh Soviet movement was subjugated in 1931, the cell of Thu and Giong expanded their organization beyond the border, i. e., into Vietnamese territory. Their organization was important all the more because other organizations of the ICP was almost completely destroyed, when Le Hong Phong was despatched back from Comintern in late 1932 to reconstruct the Party. Their organization was reorganized as Cao-Bang Lang-Son Joint Province Committee and came to bare the task of constructing the liaison network from Chinese border to Tonkin Delta including Hanoi. They gradually succeeded in this task, and Thu was able to go to Hanoi in 1935 while Giong carried out his task in Hai-Phong and Hong-gay. Their activities had contributed much to the reconstruction of the ICP, and Giong was elected a member of the Ceniral Committee in the First Party Congress, 1935, and Thu was elected one of the three permanent committee members of CC in 1945.
IV. Bac-Son Uprising and Cuu Quoc Quan
Bac-Son=Vo-Nhai district lies on the mountains of Lang-Son and Thai-Nguyen provinces, and it is inhabited mainly by ethnic minorities such as Tay, Nung, etc. The first participants of the party of this district were Nung people including Chu Van Tan who later became the chairman of Viet-Bac Autonomous Region.

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Ho Chi Minh is called Lenin in Vietnam. As is well known, he devoted his whole life to the liberation of his homeland. I cannot discuss all of his thoughts and political action in the limited space given to me. In addition, almost none of his diary is left anywhere and, as far as I know, there are only ten works or so on his biography. But each work has its own point of view.
Therefore, I will offer my thesis as follows:
1) I will take into consider the period from his birth to his entrance into the French Communist Party. In this period, however, his dominant thoughts is nationalism and anti-colonialism.
2) He took part in the Fifth Congress of Comintern and grew to the orthodox Communist (Marxist). And he was sent, on a special mission of forming the revolutionary organization, to China, Hong Kong and Thailand. Another important fact was that the Comintern desided to form the anti-fascism united front in 1935.
3) Along Comintern lines, he made the Viet-Minh in his homeland in 1941. As the result of political and army movement the Viet-Minh succeeded in the August Revolution, and grasped all political powers all over the country. But its victory was destructed by the Great-powers, so that the Indochina War begun. In this section, the emphasis is laid on his pliable strategy and tactics at many political crisis.
4) In 1954 the Geneva Conference put an end to the Indochina War. But the Geneva Agreements divided Vietnam right in two which had been historically one country. Ho Chi Minh had a great agony. But finally he dicided at first to construct socialism in the North Vietnam and then, to liberate the South where U. S. A. and Ngo Dinh Diem regime begun to rule. In 1960 the South Vietnam Liberation National Front was born in the South and Vietnam War (The Second Indochina War) begun. This war ended on April 1975 with the liberation of Saigon; which although he died on the third of September in 1969 was named Ho Chi Minh operation. In this section the main stress in laid on the moralistic phase of Ho Chi Minh.

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This paper aims to reconsider the ethnic category of the Han in Vietnam, focusing especially on the Ngai people, a Han ethnic group from South China. In 1979, the government of Vietnam officially recognized them as the Dan Toc Ngai, one of the country’s 54 ethnic groups. Therefore, the Ngai people were considered to be the aboriginal ethnic group of the Dan Toc Ngai in previous studies. Based on fieldwork, however, I found that the Ngai people are not completely equivalent to the Dan Toc Ngai, because some Ngai people in Vietnam belong to other ethnic groups, such as the Nung, Hoa, or San Diu. In this paper, I explicate the ethnic category of the Ngai people, clarifying their migration patterns, identity politics, and the formation of a global network since the end of the 1970s. In doing so, I emphasize that the Ngai people are identified as a definite trans-border ethnic group, and that the group’s ethnic categories and identities may vary according to the socio-political situation. I will then highlight the necessity of understanding the Ngai people in the context of studying the Dan Toc Ngai and other Han people in Vietnam.

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