The purpose of this study is to clarify the actual conditions of the equestrian education introduced as extracurricular activities and part of the physical exercises, a requirement at Kenkoku University (1938-1945) in Manchukuo. The results can be summarized as folows:
1. Equitation training, which was caled as kido, as part of the physical exercise program began in August,1938 it was the year when the university was established. Kido was conducted by Shiratori, an officer in Manchukuo, or Matsuoka, a jokyo-rank instructor. Students were divided into year-groups, and about ten training sessions were held during the first three years to help students have cultural experience in Manchukuo. There might have been a hundred and several dozen horses prepared for the classes.
2. Hisaya Ogura, the first-term student at the university, established the equestrian club and led members with his own philosophies until he graduated in 1943. According to Moriguchi Kenji, the second-term student, there were ten to 25 students. Almost all of them were Japanese. Most of them seemed to have joined the club to learn a new skill, which was easier than Japanese martial arts although some members like Ogura tried to take on equestrian very seriously. The activities were not always hard, and the emphasis was on individual student's autonomy just in the same way as in other clubs.
3. The word kido during that period had the meaning of attaining the state of selflessness through practice in addition to the mastery of horse riding'skill. In other words, kido was almost like a Japanese budo. Ogura suggested that members learn a spiritual discipline like Zen Buddhism. But at the same time he encouraged his students to join the club as part of the dormitory life, because it was the place for students from five different races to live together in harmony. Ogura's movement was significant even from a universal point of view in that he tried to prepare his students to serve purposes in society, instead of just teaching them horseback riding as a sport to let off steam.

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of Budo education at Kenkoku University, which was founded by the former Japanese army called the Kantogun and the Chinese collaborators during the Manchurian period in China. The following questions were arisen specifically in relation to the purpose:
1. The ideas behind the establishment of Kenkoku University,
2. The nature of the educational dormitory called JYUKU, and its students and teachers,
3. The nature of education provided through four training subjects,
4. The idea behind Budo as a training subject and on the gymnasium for Budo,
5. Brief careers of the Budo teachers,
6. The arrangement of personal appointments and brief of the advisers for Kendo, Judo and Aikibudo,
7. The team of Budo instruction (Bugaku) at Kenkoku University, and
8. The substance of the Bugaku course.
This study was done by reiew of reference books and listening to old students and teachers of Kenkoku University. In addition, it was based on information which I got in Changchun when I visited the old site of the University in August of 1990.
Briefly, the results were as follows:
1. Kenkoku Univ. was established to foster leaders and government officials for Manchuria. The prime minister was its president. It was a special Univ.
2. About 150 students were gathered from five nations. They were Japanese, Chinese, Mongolian, Russian and Korean. The five races were divided into six JYUKU schools, each consisting of about 25 students from all nations. Kenkoku Univ. consisted of a six-year course divided into two or three-year courses.
3. Training subjects consisted of philosophy, army, Budo and agricultural training. During the first three-year course, students studied these subjects in the afternoon, attesting to their importance in the University curriculum.
4. Vice president Syouichi Sakuta wrote in his book: “Generally, Japanese Budo are not techniques for fighting but for developing the culture of the mind and to foster energy. If we want such strength, we must practice Budo.” In other words, Sakuta expected the students to become men with cultivated minds and physical energy. The gymnasium for Budo was called YOUSEIDO, which was the biggest and most superb building in the Univ.
5. In 1941, there were five full-time teachers in the Univ.; Prof. H. Ishinaka (Kendo), Associate Prof. K. Tomiki (Aikibudo and Budo theory known as Bugaku), K. Manda (Judo), T. Yoshikawa(Kendo), and Assistant Prof. J. Asako (Kendo). About one year later, M. Kagawa (Kyudo) was promoted to Associate Prof. I believe. S. Wakuta (previously Sumo wrestler, Tenryu) was a part-time teacher.
6. It is difficult to say who arranged the personal appointments for these teachers, but three advisers seemed to be related to them; Y. Shimatani (Kendo), S. Fukushima (Judo) and M. Uesiba (Aikibudo).
7. The team of Bugaku was set up at Kenkyuin, which was a research organization of Kenkoku Univ. This team consisted of two low ranking teams, military and martial arts (Budo) team.
8. According to the school regulation, there were four parts in the Bugaku team: Budo and Bujyutu theory, the histories of wars, what wars should be, and the strategy and tactics.

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Due to the countless variations in standing upper limb joint-locking techniques in Japanese martial arts, they are difficult to master. Nevertheless, several techniques commonly target the same joints and muscles, and may be performed using the same principle. In this study, the standing upper limb joint-locking techniques in several Japanese martial arts were classified by the movement direction of each joint. The primary techniques were classified into 19 patterns based on combinations of wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder joint techniques. These classifications not only help practitioners learn techniques of the same group on the same principle, but also they may become a learning aid to clarify the mechanisms underlying each joint technique.

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 The present study aimed to clarify the inception and development of Kenji Tomiki's technical theory of budo during the pre-war Showa era, focusing particularly on the succession of Jigoro Kano's concept of judo as a martial art. The main points are summarized as follows:
 A letter written by Tomiki in 1928 reveals that he was interested in the comprehensive combat techniques of Ueshiba's aikijujutsu including the use of bare hands and weapons. Tomiki considered that devotees of budo should practice a comprehensive range of techniques from bare-handed combat to the use of weapons. While he mainly succeeded to shobu (martial arts) under the systematic judo theory of Kano, he also thought it possible to overcome the problems inherent to taiiku (physical education), shushin (development of the spirit), and ishinho (methods to ease the spirit) by studying aikijujutsu. The starting point of Tomiki's theory was to emphasize the kata training that simulated various situations in actual combat.
 During the prewar period, Tomiki tried to ascertain the fundamental principles of ken-no-ki (ki of the Japanese sword) and ju-no-ri (the principle of flexibility). These principles made it possible to complement the principle of judo as seiryoku-zenyo (most efficient use of energy) that Kano had proposed technically.
 In 1942, Tomiki published a research article entitled “The systematic study of techniques while maintaining distance in judo: The principles of judo and the techniques of Aiki-Budo”. In the article, he tried to present consistency between randori and these techniques while maintaining distance in judo, then established 6 fundamental laws of martial arts, including kendo, a system for education in these techniques, and the 12 basic kata.
 The consistent points of Tomiki's theory of budo in the pre-war era were to understand the strong and weak points of each competitive budo and kata, and the importance of kata. Although the emphasis on atemi-waza in Tomiki's theory had points in common with the combative techniques of school budo during the interwar period, Tomiki was really interested in overcoming the disadvantages of judo for sport based on Kano's concept of judo as a martial art. Tomiki mainly inherited the latter, and criticized competitive judo.

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The main purpose of this study was to verify the process of formation and development of the concept of aiki used by Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, and his disciples. The main points can be summarized as follows:
1. The term aiki has been used to refer to particular martial arts techniques and to a spiritual state that can be experienced by practicing Aikido. Morihei taught aiki as a technique, as shown in the memorandum of the Japanese Imperial Navy Admiral Isamu Takeshita around 1930. Kisshomaru Ueshiba, Morihei Ueshiba's son, also introduced these techniques in his book, “Techniques of Aikido” (1962), etc. However, neither Morehei Ueshiba nor his son explained about aiki in detail. Kenji Tomiki and Gozo Shioda used aiki as a term of technique, but they do not seem to have taught techniques under the name of aiki.
2. Onisaburo Deguchi, the head of Omoto-kyo, used the expressions “the union between a kami and a mortal” in 1921 and “the great love of the kami” in 1935, which Morihei later emphasized in relation to aiki. Omoto-kyo heavily influenced the building of Morihei's thoughts on aiki and Aikido. Aiki was likened to the great love of the Universe, Heaven and Earth, or the kami who nurtures all nature and mortals. In short, a) aiki is the union between the kami as love, and mortals, hence the practice of aiki is the purification of mind and body; b) the practice of Aikido creates a paradise for mortals on earth; c) because the kami does not oppose anyone, a practitioner does not oppose in Aikido. Morihei's thought influenced the policy of the succeeding organization of Aikido through Kisshomaru.
3. Morihei's four main pupils inherited his thoughts through several arrangements. Shioda explained aiki as “a technique for following the laws of nature”. Tohei insisted that aiki is “the union between the ki in heaven and earth and a mortal”. Sunadomari interpreted aiki as a combative technique and a divine work. Tomiki understood the term in two ways: one is a technique that falls into the category of kuzushi (balance-breaking), and the other is the unity of ki (energy) between nature and man. As to the way that Aikido should develop in the future, we need to study further Morihei's thoughts and their development under his pupils.

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Kanō Jigorō diligently studied “atemi-waza” (striking techniques). When he watched aikido founder Ueshiba Morihei’s martial arts demonstration in 1930, he praised that performance as the ideal of the martial arts. This study aims to analyze 689 of Ueshiba’s counter techniques against atemi-waza, as detailed in the martial arts notebooks Ken and Kon, written by the Japanese Imperial Navy Admiral Takeshita Isamu, Ueshiba’s pupil and patron in 1930, with reference to the explanations of Kanō Jigorō’s pursuit of judo as a martial art. The author will consider the similarities between Kanō’s ideal judo as a martial art and Ueshiba’s techniques. The main points are as follows:
(1) From the beginning of the Kōdōkan, Kanō had taken measures to cope with atemi-waza, but he could not adopt the techniques into the randori system because of the risk of injury. Instead, he adopted atemi-waza into kata, although practitioners continued to emphasize randori despite Kanō’s repeated warnings. Kanō feared the practitioners’ bad posture. Kanō believed that an essential element in judo as a martial art was to dodge the opponent’s unpredictable atemi attacks by using nimble body movements. He therefore stressed the importance of a natural posture. Kanō thought that a natural posture was ideal because it could flexibly respond to any atemi attack.
(2) The opponent’s atemi-waza in the 689 techniques highlighted by Takeshita included both short- and long-distance attacks. These techniques made the opponents’ atemi attacks, which included chops, punches, and kicks, ineffective through the use of nimble body movements and the skillful use of the hands in situations where the practitioner was either standing or sitting. Based on a natural posture and these defensive techniques, Ueshiba used dangerous atemi-waza or skilled throwing techniques that were influenced by Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. It becomes clear that one of the features of Ueshiba’s skills, as praised as an ideal martial art by Kanō, was to cope with the opponent’s atemi attacks by using a natural posture and nimble body movements, both of which were essential elements in judo as a martial art according to Kanō.

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 54

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 51

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 35-44

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 28

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 11-18

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Vol. 13 (1981) No. 3 p. 1-9

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The aim of this study is to analyze the contemporary trends of accidents occurring during aikido practice using the publications of three non-profit insurance associations, to introduce eleven serious accidends, and to suggest preventive measures.
The key points of the preventive measures are as follows;
1. To appreciate fully the potentially dangerous points of kata-practice of aikido.
2. To suggest preventive measures for avoiding accidents by shiho-nage and irimi-nage and to introduce medical opinions on the accidents.
3. To do preventive exercises, especially isometrics trainning for the neck.
4. Ensuring that the people concerned understand, draw up a report and publicize how the accident occurred and what should be done to prevent recurrences.

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The purpose of this study is to clarify the actual conditions of the boyonet fencing education introduced as part of the military drill, a required subject at Kenkoku University (1932-1945) in Manturia. The results can be summarized as follows:
1. The military drill as well as budo and agricultural trainings was considered to be the most important subject as the university. The time of boyonet fencing training in the military program was conducted in the latter half of 1940, three year after the university was established. It seemes to have been related to the characteristic of the university, whose goal was to bring up the high-rank government officials. The style of boyonet fencing drill was typically based on The Model for Fencing published by the Japanese army.
2. The military drill was conducted by an officer and his assistant. instructor called jokyo, but the boyonet fencing was usually taught by a jokyo accompanied by his junior assistant. The names of the major assistant instructors were Noboru Ohta, Teruo Sajyrai, Sunayama and so on. According to the old studens, Sakurai, who served at the university between the establishment and the closing, had much influence upon students since about 1942 at the latest.
3. The boyonet fencing as classwork somewhere between the latter half of 1941, and the beginning of 1941, and then it was gradually expanded, Koichi Fujimori, one of the secondterm students, remembers that his contemporaries practiced the. boyonet fencing after classes and that they started it in 1941. It has been confirmed that the fifth-term students had been engaged in the training as part of their extracurricular activiies since 1944 at the latest. However, it seemes that each year group trained by themselves, and there was no joint training among different year groups.
4. One of the club's menbers said he found satisfaction in the furthering of friendship with their rivals. Competent instructors might have contributed to the good relationships among students, too. The interesting features of the boyonet fencing as a combative sport and such educational environment combined to give the students a sense of great satisfaction. Though the boyonet fencing was a war martial art, it was possible to greatly contribute to the character building of students if there were excellent instructors and an instructive environment, and an if students practiced it, while thinking about what human being, society and international society should be.

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Only a few historical studies have examined Japan’s martial arts during the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945. Those studies that do exist tend to focus on the controversy surrounding “sengika,” or the militarization of martial arts. Extant research has documented that sengika was recommended by the Martial Arts Promotion Committee (MAPC), which was instituted by the government as an advisory body in December 1939.

Previous research indicates that the commissioners of the MAPC were not universally enthusiastic about sengika. The purpose of this study is to delineate the process by which internal opposition to sengika was transformed into support on the committee.

This research has yielded the following results: the commissioners originally critical of the sengika came to concur that martial arts could have useful military applications. They emphasized the combative effectiveness of martial arts that is not evident in sport-oriented practices, and aimed to distinguish between the martial arts and sports with the intention of protecting the uniqueness of Japanese martial arts. This stance, however, prevented them from offering a protest against sengika.

One area for further investigation is why those officials intent on preventing the Westernization of martial arts (making them into sports) chose to make the combative effectiveness of martial arts their central issue. Subsequent research on the role of martial arts during wartime will need to address in greater detail this effort to prevent the treatment of martial arts as sport.

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