In this article, the nature of structural problems in the current support activities for sports as corporate philanthropy is analyzed first, using the theories of L.Kohlberg on the moral development. In the just community based on the morality at the high level of the moral stage, the members can establish mutual trust, and besides, they can promote the further moral development in the community. In the environment based on the morality at the high level such as in the just community, there is "fairness." The conditions of forming "fairness" are based on the "social ethical preference," provided by effective means to judge ethical or unethical corporate behavior correctly and to influence over the corporate behavior. L. Nash proposes that moral leadership in the business environment can create the values and trust between businesses and the society. The corporations can integrate ethical behavior with economic success, making mutually beneficial for the both sides of people who support and who are supported. Thus, the relationship based on the "Fair Contractual Corporate Ethics" in communities can create an ideal situation.

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Professional baseball, the origin of professional sport in Japan, has been institutionalized through the leading involvement of corporations, which are economic organizations with the purpose of profit.

The Bundesliga in Germany, which serves as an ideal for the J.League, is organized around nonprofit organizations known as Verein. German nonprofit organizations operate primarily based on general meetings of local citizens and voting in elections and play a role in negotiating with governments and businesses while consolidating and representing the views of local citizens. For the Bundesliga, in which only Verein had been permitted to participate, the commercialization of the 1990s saw permission to operate clubs extended to for-profit companies. However, with the establishment of the “50+1 rule” and the “club licensing system”, clubs were required to hold a majority of their own voting rights. Under such a system, the Bundesliga has contributed to the creation of “civil society”-formed through collaboration between businesses, government, communities, and nonprofit organizations—while centered on a “citizenry” that seeks to organize groups and associations and influence political and economic systems.

This study analyzed the J.League philosophy from this public sphere perspective and found that although a philosophy aimed at collaboration between governments, businesses, and citizens has persisted to the present day, and partnerships between businesses and governments have materialized—local governments, for example, hold shares in professional soccer clubs—the specific roles that citizens and nonprofit organizations can play in league and club operations remain undetermined. Moreover, this challenge was attributed to differences in the systems around corporations in Japan and Germany.

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The purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics of female spectators at J.League (the Japanese Professional Soccer League) games and to develop some marketing strategies focused on female spectators. Data were collected by a self-administrated questionnaire during J. League games at five different stadiums between Aug. 29 and Sep. 29, 1998. Using proportionate sampling methods stratified by gender and age, researchers collected a total of 2, 016 responses. The survey response rate was 99.2 %. Based on some significant gender related differences in spectating behavior, spectators' backgrounds related to soccer and social-psychological variables, the current study suggested that marketing strategies focused on female spectators would be effective. Furthermore, the current study made several marketing recommendations based on these various gender related differences.

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The sports participation rate, which indicates the exercise habits of people, has increased significantly in the last 30 years. According to the survey of household economy, the ratio of sports admission fees to education and entertainment expenses is on the rise. Then, how much has the sports spectating rate, which indicates whether or not a person spectated at sports events at least once a year, increased? In this study, we investigated whether the increase in the spectating rate could be confirmed by macro data. The data was secondarily obtained from the “National Sports-Life Survey” and “National Sports-Life Survey of Children and Young People” conducted by the Sasakawa Sports Foundation, and the ratios of respondents who had spectated some kind of sports in the last year were aggregated and compared by survey year. To evaluate the significance of difference in each survey year, Kruskal-Wallis test and Bonferroni correction were used. As a result of the investigation, a significant increase in the spectating rate was observed from 1994 to 2010 for adults excluding students, and no significant decrease was confirmed thereafter. On the other hand, for professional baseball (NPB) and soccer (J-League), there was no increasing trend in the spectating rate. This suggested that the absolute number of spectators is small compared to the whole population in Japan. Although sports admission fees have increased due to the repeaters, from the viewpoint of the spectating rate, even if the number of spectators at one event increases, it gives small impact on the spectating rate of the whole, as long as the venues are in a biased location. In order to increase the number of spectators, it is important that various events be held in various areas.

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This study aims to clarify the existent structure of “PGA Tour".

The PGA Tour is the biggest professional golf tournament in the world―the main arena of professional players like Tiger Woods. Many researches on professional sports have hitherto targeted the so-called league type, which include games such as professional baseball, soccer, and basketball. However, professional sports of the “non-league types," for example, professional golf, is clearly different from the league type in terms of their management structure. This study approaches PGA Tour as a typical case belonging to such non-league-type professional sports, analyzing the historical process from which it was born and developed and its existent structure.

The main points presented in this study are as follows:

First, from a diachronic view, the PGA Tour grew from its initial low profitability stature through charity tournaments and by securing sponsors and increasing telecasts. Second, the relational structure of PGA Tour is extremely fluid in that it is a series of tournaments in which stakeholders such as the shareholder, organization, and facilities constantly change. Third, the PGA Tour works on a peculiar mechanism based on the liquidity of the relational structure, balancing revenue and expenditure.

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