Abstract
In order to solve the problem of single aroma with rice wine brewed by uncooked material method, Zanthoxylum bungeanum, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch, Osmanthus fragrans, glutinous rice and other materials were used to brew rice wine. Taking sensory evaluation and alcohol content as indexes, the suitable fermentation process parameters of compound rice wine with uncooked material method were determined by single factor test and response surface test. The results showed that when 1.7% Z. bungeanum seed, 1.0% G. uralensis Fisch, 3.0% O. fragrans and 1.5% koji were added to glutinous rice, the compound rice wine with 90.8 score of sensory evaluation and 9.1%vol alcohol content could be obtained by 18 days fermentation at 26.9 °C. The compound rice wine had bright yellow transparent, typical harmonious fruity aroma of the wine, mellow taste. The contents of limonene and linalool were 5.87 mg/L and 3.14 mg/L, respectively. Therefore, a theoretical basis for industrialized production was provided.
Introduction
Rice wine is a kind of traditional alcoholic beverage in Asia (Wang, Y.R. et al., 2015), and traditional rice wine is loved by consumers not only because of its unique aroma and taste (Ren et al., 2021), but also because of its richer nutrients and therapeutic effects (Zhu et al., 2016). In its production process, raw materials need to be steamed, and steaming grains requires a lot of energy. What' more, the content of total acid and total ester in the product are relatively low; therefore the price is often higher than the beer that belongs to the same brewing alcohol (Jiao et al., 2017). If the energy consumed by steamed grains can be saved, the production cost of traditional rice wine will be greatly reduced. Therefore, the uncooked material method with high wine yield and low production cost was born (Zhang et al., 2013). At present, uncooked material method has achieved good economic and social benefits in liquor production, but it is not widely used in rice wine production (Huang et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020). The main reason is that brewing rice wine with uncooked materials is easy to cause undesirable phenomena such as single aroma and uncoordinated taste (Wang et al., 2020). In order to solve this kind of undesirable phenomenon, this research intends to use a variety of uncooked materials that can improve the aroma of the wine.
It is found that consumers generally like alcoholic beverages with higher content of limonene and linalool (He et al., 2018). These two volatile substances are higher in lemon and Zanthoxylum bungeanum (Ibanez et al., 2020; Yang, 2008; Zhang, L.L. et al., 2019), and compared with lemons, the cost of Z. bungeanum is relatively low and belongs to plant waste. In this experiment, Z. bungeanum seed was selected as the main source of limonene and linalool in rice wine, hoping to achieve the purpose of rational use of spice plant waste. But because it has a certain pungent taste (Zhang, X. et al., 2019), it needs to be compounded with other raw materials when used as a brewing material.
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch is a very well-known herb in traditional Chinese medicine. It was believed to have the functions of nourishing qi, alleviating pain, tonifying spleen and stomach, eliminating phlegm, and relieving coughing (Yu et al., 2015). G. uralensis Fisch contains more than 20 triterpenoids and nearly 300 flavonoids, and it can be added in foods and beverages (Wang, L. et al., 2015). Meanwhile, Osmanthus fragrans is also used as additives in foods and beverages (Liu et al., 2015). In previous studies, lignans, sterols, pentacyclic triterpene and secoiridoid glucoside were isolated from it (Lee, 2011; Yoo et al., 2013). Therefore, Z. bungeanum, G. uralensis Fisch, O. fragrans, glutinous rice and other materials were used to brew rice wine by uncooked material method. The production process of compound rice wine was optimized through single factor test and response surface test, in order to obtain the compound rice wine with excellent sensory properties and high content of limonene and linalool, and providing theoretical basis for industrial production.
Materials and Methods
Materials Z. bungeanum seeds (The water content was 10.23%) were procured from was procured from Hanyuan Szechuan Pepper Company (Hanyuan, Sichuan, China), G. uralensis Fisch (The water content was 10.58%) and O. fragrans (The water content was 11.73%) were procured from Nanning Pharmaceutical Company (Nanning, Guangxi, China). Glutinous rice (The water content was 11.73%, the starch content was 78.31%) was procured from brewing raw material planting base of Gao County (Yibin, Sichuan, China), koji [40% Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 55% Rhizopus oryzae and 5% complex enzyme NS22002 (enzyme activity of the main β-glucosidase was 7 IU/g, 1 IU of β-glucosidase is defined as the enzymatic loading that releases 1 µmol glucose/min from salicin at 37 °C and pH 5.0)] was procured from Grams of Biological Technology Co., Ltd. (Lishui, Zhejiang, China), limonene and linalool standard compound was procured from Beijing Puxi Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). The other reagents were analytically pure.
Test flow Test flow shown was in Fig. 1. The operation points were as follows: Removing impurities and stems from Z. bungeanum seeds, G. uralensis Fisch and O. fragrans, and those herbs were passed through 60 mesh sieves after grinding. The selected high-quality glutinous rice was washed with pure water. After dripping the pure water of washed materials, 4 kinds of uncooked materials were added the into the fermentation tank according to different proportion. Meanwhile, 200% pure water was added for mixing, and then a certain proportion of koji was added. Subsequently, the mixture was static fermented and stirred once a day for the first 3 days during fermentation. After the fermentation, the liquor was pressed with filter cloth, then the filtered liquor was finished product.
Optimization of production technology of compound rice wine by single factor test Under the basic conditions of Z. bungeanum seeds addition, G. uralensis Fisch addition, O. fragrans addition, the amount of koji inoculation, fermentation temperature, fermentation time were 0.3%, 0.3%, 0.3%, 3%, 28 °C and 16 d, respectively. Each single factor test kept other factors unchanged and changed only one of them. Investigating the effects of Z. bungeanum seeds addition (0, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%), G. uralensis Fisch addition(0, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%), O. fragrans addition (0, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%), koji inoculation amount (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%), fermentation temperature (24, 26, 28, 30, 32 °C), fermentation time (12 d, 14 d, 16 d, 18 d, 20 d) on sensory evaluation and alcohol content of compound rice wine.
Optimization of production technology of compound rice wine by response surface methodology On the basis of single factor test, one of the response surface methodologies, the Box-Behnken statistical design (Box et al., 1960) was used to conduct response surface test for the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds (A), the addition of O. fragrans (B), amount of inoculation koji (C) and fermentation temperature (D), and the results were shown in Table 1. Table 1 represents a 29-trial experimental design, where each variable was tested in three different coded levels: low (−1), middle (0) and high (+1). The coded values correspond for the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds: −1 (1%), 0 (2%), +1 (3%). For the addition of O. fragrans: −1 (2%), 0 (3%), +1 (4%). For amount of inoculation koji: −1 (1.0%), 0 (1.5%), +1 (2.0%). For fermentation temperature: −1 (24 °C), 0 (26 °C), +1 (28 °C). While, center points per block was 5.
Table 1.
Experimental design and results for response surface analysis on the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine
| No. |
A: Addition of Z. bungeanum seeds (%) |
B: Addition of O. fragrans (%) |
C: Amount of koji inoculation (%) |
D: Fermentation temperature (°C) |
Sensory evaluation |
| 1 |
0 (2) |
0 (3) |
0 (1.5) |
0 (26) |
82.2 |
| 2 |
1 (3) |
1 (4) |
0 |
0 |
87.3 |
| 3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
81.9 |
| 4 |
1 |
-1 (2) |
0 |
0 |
85.3 |
| 5 |
-1 (1) |
0 |
1 (2.0) |
0 |
84.1 |
| 6 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
1 (28) |
85.8 |
| 7 |
-1 |
0 |
-1 (1.0) |
0 |
88.1 |
| 8 |
1 |
0 |
-1 |
0 |
83.0 |
| 9 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
-1 (24) |
83.5 |
| 10 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
87.5 |
| 11 |
0 |
-1 |
0 |
-1 |
81.1 |
| 12 |
0 |
-1 |
-1 |
0 |
82.5 |
| 13 |
0 |
-1 |
0 |
1 |
87.8 |
| 14 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
-1 |
83.2 |
| 15 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
84.8 |
| 16 |
-1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
83.6 |
| 17 |
0 |
0 |
-1 |
-1 |
86.2 |
| 18 |
-1 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
83.7 |
| 19 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
90.7 |
| 20 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
88.5 |
| 21 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
-1 |
86.0 |
| 22 |
-1 |
0 |
0 |
-1 |
86.9 |
| 23 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
84.7 |
| 24 |
0 |
-1 |
1 |
0 |
82.4 |
| 25 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
85.8 |
| 26 |
-1 |
-1 |
0 |
0 |
80.7 |
| 27 |
0 |
1 |
-1 |
0 |
81.3 |
| 28 |
0 |
0 |
-1 |
1 |
86.4 |
| 29 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
86.8 |
Sensory evaluation of compound rice wine Sensory evaluation was taken by a sensory evaluation panel consisting of 11 (5 men and 6 women) wine-tasters referring to NY/T1885-2017 “Green Food Rice Wine” (Standards, 2017) and 4 aspects including appearance (0–10 score), aroma (0–30 score), taste (0–40 score) and typicalness (0–20 score) were considered.
Analysis of key aroma substances Determination of limonene and linalool was taken by gas chromatography. Chromatographic conditions were appropriately improved based on the determination of limonene and linalool by Dong et al (Dong et al., 2016). The gas chromatography temperature rise program was: the Initial column temperature was 80 °C, then raised to 230 °C at the rate of 12 °C/min and keep 15 min; other conditions remain unchanged. The standard products of limonene and linalool were formulated into different concentration gradients and used to draw the standard curve of the both standard products.
Statistical analysis All experiments were performed at least three times, and SPSS 18.0 was used to analyze data, results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the differences among experimental groups. p < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant and p < 0.01 was regarded as highly statistically significant. Response surface design and result analysis were performed by Design Expert 10.1 software.
Results and Discussion
The effect of Z. bungeanum seeds addition on the quality of compound rice wine As seen in Fig. 2A, the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine had shown a trend of first ascending and then descending with the increase of Z. bungeanum seeds addition. When the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds was 2%, the score of sensory evaluation of compound rice wine reached highest (76.5 ± 0.7). A proper amount of Z. bungeanum seeds can improve the sensory evaluation score of the compound rice wine. The reason is that the limonene and linalool contained in the Z. bungeanum seeds can give the rice wine a pleasant floral and fruity fragrance, which makes the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine a higher score in terms of aroma (Lan et al., 2016). But when the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds in the compound rice wine exceeded 2%, the hemp and bitterness were prominent in the compound rice wine, which adversely affected the sensory characteristics of the compound rice wine and caused the sensory evaluation score to decrease. Although the alcohol content of the compound rice wine changed with the increase of Z. bungeanum seeds addition, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05). Therefore, the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds was selected to be 1%, 2% and 3% for the subsequent response surface test.
The effect of G. uralensis Fisch addition on the quality of compound rice wine The alcohol content of compound rice wine did not change significantly with the increase of the addition of G. uralensis Fisch (Fig. 2B), which may be due to the fact that G. uralensis Fisch does not contain or contains small amount of substances beneficial or harmful to alcohol fermentation. Since G. uralensis Fisch is 100 times sweeter than sucrose, adding G. uralensis Fisch gives rice wine sweet taste (Giudici et al., 2017). The sensory evaluation score of compound rice wine reached the highest (79.3 ± 0.9) when the addition of G. uralensis Fisch was 1%. When the addition continued to increase, it would cause adverse effects on the flavor of the compound rice wine. Therefore, adding 1% G. uralensis Fisch was the better choice for brewing compound rice wine.
The effect of O. fragrans addition on the quality of compound rice wine As seen in Fig. 2C, when the addition of O. fragrans increased from 0% to 3%, the sensory evaluation score of compound rice wine increased from (68.6 ± 0.9) to (79.3 ± 0.9). Although O. fragrans could endow compound rice wine with pleasant sweetness, strong sweetness would destroy the overall style of the compound rice wine. Therefore, when the addition amount of O. fragrans was more than 3%, the sensory evaluation score of compound rice wine decreased significantly (p < 0.05). Since sugars and other substances contained in O. fragrans can be utilized by microorganisms to produce ethanol (Lee et al., 2020), the alcohol content of compound rice wine increases with the increase of O. fragrans addition, reaching (8.7 ± 0.1) %vol. When the addition of O. fragrans increased from 3% to 5%, the alcohol content of compound rice wine increased by 5.7%, while the sensory evaluation score decreased by 7.2%. Considering that the products need to maintain good sensory evaluation, O. fragrans was added 2%, 3% and 4% for subsequent response surface test.
The effect of the amount of koji inoculation on the quality of compound rice wine When the amount of koji inoculation increased from 0.5% to 1.5%, the score of sensory evaluation of compound rice wine and alcohol content increased significantly (p < 0.05) from (72.6 ± 0.8) and (6.3 ± 0.0) %vol to (79.3 ± 0.9) and (8.2 ± 0.1) %vol, respectively (Fig. 2D). When the amount of koji inoculation increased from 1.5% to 2%, the alcohol content of compound rice wine increased significantly to (8.8 ± 0.2) %vol (p < 0.05), but the score of sensory evaluation decreased significantly to (76.1 ± 0.7) (p < 0.05). When the amount of koji inoculation was relatively low, it was easy to cause undesirable phenomena such as high residual sugar content in the fermented grains and thin wine body (Lv et al., 2015). When the amount of koji inoculation was relatively high, it was easy to increase the temperature of the compound rice wine, causing the microorganisms to metabolize to produce excessive higher alcohols, especially isobutanol, which in turn makes the compound rice wine have a bitter taste (Krescanková et al., 2015). Therefore, the amount of koji inoculation was selected to be 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% for the subsequent response surface test.
The effect of fermentation temperature on the quality of compound rice wine As seen in Fig. 2E, the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine and alcohol content had shown a trend of first ascending and then descending with the continuous increase of fermentation temperature. Among them, when the fermentation temperature was 26 °C, the sensory evaluation score of the compound rice wine was the highest (85.1 ± 1.2). When the temperature was lower than the appropriate temperature, the microorganisms and related enzymes in the koji couldn't fully exert their effects, which made the fermented grains low in alcohol and poor wine body. When the temperature was higher than the appropriate temperature, the metabolism of microorganisms was accelerated, and it was easy to generate a lot of heat to inhibit the growth and metabolism of microorganisms such as yeast, causing the fermentation capacity of microorganisms to decrease, which in turn caused the wine body to be insufficiently mellow and the aroma was not full enough (Alim et al., 2018). Therefore, the fermentation temperature of the compound rice wine was selected to be 28–32 °C for the subsequent response surface test.
The effect of fermentation time on the quality of compound rice wine As seen in Fig. 2F, the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine and alcohol content increased with the prolongation of the fermentation time. When fermentation time was 20 d, the score of sensory evaluation of compound rice wine and alcohol content reached a maximum of (88.9 ± 0.9) and (8.6 ± 0.1) %vol, respectively. When fermentation time was insufficient, fermentable sugar in fermented grains of compound rice wine has not been completely converted into alcohol, resulting in insufficient alcohol and insufficient aroma of the compound rice wine (Zhang et al., 2015). When the fermentation time reached 18 d, the sensory evaluation score and alcohol level increased slightly, but it was not significant (p > 0.05). Therefore, 18 d was the best fermentation time for compound rice wine brewed with uncooked materials.
Response surface test of the quality of compound rice wine One of the response surface methodologies, the Box-Behnken statistical design was used to conduct response surface test for the addition of Z. bungeanum seeds (A), the addition of O. fragrans (B), amount of inoculation koji (C) and fermentation temperature (D), and the results were shown in Table 1.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze experimental dates; the results were represented in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the model was extremely significant (p < 0.05), the lack of fit was not significant (p > 0.05), indicating that the regression equation was well fitted. Meanwhile, the correlation coefficient of the corresponding regression equation model was R2 = 0.9259, R2Adj = 0.9118, which indicated that the accuracy of the model was very good. And the influence of four factors on the sensory evaluation showed the following order: A > B > C > D, that was, addition of Z. bungeanum seeds had the most significant effect on the sensory evaluation, followed by addition of O. fragrans, amount of koji inoculation, fermentation temperature. After regression fitting, the corresponding regression equation was obtained as follow: sensory evaluation = 88.42 − 1.02A + 0.04B + 0.06C + 1.52D + 0.75AB + 0.60AC − 0.28AD + 2.05BC + 1.18BD − 0.43CD − 1.68A2 − 2.43B2 − 2.53C2 − 1.90D2.
Table 2.
Variance analysis on the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine
| Source of variation |
Sum of squares |
Degree of freedom |
Mean square |
F value |
P value |
Significance |
| Model |
113.03 |
14 |
8.07 |
3.57 |
0.0116 |
* |
| A |
9.01 |
1 |
9.01 |
3.99 |
0.0656 |
|
| B |
1.47 |
1 |
1.47 |
0.65 |
0.4334 |
|
| C |
0.56 |
1 |
0.56 |
0.25 |
0.6253 |
|
| D |
0.08 |
1 |
0.08 |
0.04 |
0.8505 |
|
| AB |
7.56 |
1 |
7.56 |
3.35 |
0.0887 |
|
| AC |
13.69 |
1 |
13.69 |
6.06 |
0.0274 |
* |
| AD |
0.72 |
1 |
0.72 |
0.32 |
0.5807 |
|
| BC |
34.81 |
1 |
34.81 |
15.41 |
0.0015 |
** |
| BD |
0.72 |
1 |
0.72 |
0.32 |
0.5807 |
|
| CD |
11.56 |
1 |
11.56 |
5.12 |
0.0401 |
* |
| A2 |
1.29 |
1 |
1.29 |
0.57 |
0.4625 |
|
| B2 |
26.71 |
1 |
26.71 |
11.82 |
0.0040 |
** |
| C2 |
0.27 |
1 |
0.27 |
0.12 |
0.7345 |
|
| D2 |
3.22 |
1 |
3.22 |
1.42 |
0.2526 |
|
| Residual |
31.63 |
14 |
2.26 |
|
|
|
| Lack of fit |
23.75 |
10 |
2.37 |
1.21 |
0.4640 |
|
| Pure error |
7.88 |
4 |
1.97 |
|
|
|
| Cor total |
144.66 |
28 |
|
|
|
|
Note: “*” indicates that significant difference at the 0.05 level, and “**” indicates that highly significant difference at the 0.01 level.
According to ANOVA, the interaction term of BC, the quadric terms of B2 had very significant effect on the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine (p < 0.01), while, the interaction term of AC and CD had significant effect on the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine (p < 0.05). That meant the experiment could use the above regression equation to determine the appropriate technology for compound rice wine brewing.
The response surface graph is the surface graph of the three-dimensional space formed by the response value to each test factor (Singh et al., 2004). From the response surface analysis graph, the best parameters and the interaction between the parameters can be seen vividly, while, the steeper the slope of the response surface graph, the greater the interaction between the two factors (Bayraktar, 2001). Response surface graph from four-factor interaction were presented as Fig. 3. And among the interaction terms of four factors, the slope of the response surface formed by factor B and factor C was the steepest (Fig. 3D), which was fit with the ANOVA result that the interaction terms of BC had very significant effect on the sensory evaluation of compound rice wine (p < 0.01). Moreover, it is obvious that maximum sensory evaluation was attained at moderate levels of 2.0% Z. bungeanum seed (Fig. 3A, B, C), 3.0% O. fragrans (Fig. 3A, D, E), 1.5% koji inoculation (Fig. 3B, D, F) and fermentation temperature of 26 °C (Fig. 3C, E, F).
According to response surface analysis, the compound rice wine has the highest theoretical value of 90.9332 in sensory evaluation under the conditions of 1.66% Z. bungeanum seed, 3.04% O. fragrans, 1.48% koji inoculation, and fermentation temperature of 26.89 °C. Subsequently, three parallel experiments were performed on the addition of 1.7% Z. bungeanum seed, 3.0% O. fragrans, 1.5% koji inoculum, and fermentation temperature of 26.9 °C. The test result showed that under these conditions, the compound rice wine could obtain a sensory evaluation score of (90.8 ± 1.2).
Analysis of Key Aroma Components and Sensory Characteristics in Compound Rice Wine The contents of limonene and linalool in the compound rice wine brewed by the uncooked material method optimized by response surface methodology were determined. The rice wine without plant raw materials (Z. bungeanum seed, G. uralensis Fisch and O. fragrans) was used as the control. The contents of limonene and linalool in the two rice wines were shown in Table 3.
Table 3.
The content of limonene and linalool in two kinds of rice wine
| Sample |
Limonene (mg/L) |
Linalool (mg/L) |
| Compound rice wine |
5.87 ± 0.13* |
3.14 ± 0.09* |
| Control sample |
0.00 ± 0.00 |
0.58 ± 0.03 |
Note: “*” indicates that significant difference at the 0.05 level.
As shown in Table 3, the contents of limonene and linalool in compound rice wine were significantly higher than those in the control sample (p < 0.05). This indicated that limonene and linalool, which were beneficial to the sensory quality of alcoholic drinks, could be brought into the compound rice wine by raw material method, and gave the compound rice wine a pleasant aroma to a certain extent, so that the aroma score of the compound rice wine was higher than that of the control sample. Taking sensory evaluation as the evaluation index, by controlling the addition of Z. bungeanum seed and compounding with a variety of raw materials, the purpose of improving the aroma of rice wine produced by raw material method was achieved, and the numb and bitter taste of Z. bungeanum seed well shielded, the taste and typicality of rice wine were improved, which was in line with consumer preferences.
Conclusion
Using glutinous rice, Z. bungeanum seed, G. uralensis Fisch and O. fragrans as materials, the uncooked material method was used to brew rice wine, and the optimized process conditions were: When 1.7% Z. bungeanum seed, 1.0% G. uralensis Fisch, 3.0% O. fragrans, 1.5% koji and 200% purified water were added to glutinous rice; the compound rice wine with sensory evaluation of 90.8 and alcohol content of 9.1%vol could be obtained by 18 days fermentation at 26.9 °C. Meanwhile, this compound rice wine had bright yellow transparent, typical harmonious fruity aroma of the wine, mellow taste. The contents of limonene and linalool were 5.87 mg/L and 3.14 mg/L, respectively. Therefore, a theoretical basis for industrialized production was provided.
Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by Key Laboratory of Wuliangye-flavor Liquor Solid-state Fermentation, China National Light Industry (No. 2018JJ020); Solid-state Fermentation Resource Utilization Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province of China (No. 2019GTJ012); Key Lab of Aromatic Plant Resources Exploitation and Utilization in Sichuan Higher Education of China (No. 2018XLZ007); Scientific research project of Yibin Vocational and Technical College of China (No. ZRKX21ZD-04); Science and technology innovation team project of Yibin Vocational and Technical College (ybzy21cxtd-03).
Compliance with ethical standards This study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration and approved by the Ethics Committee of Yibin Vocational and Technical College, Yibin, China (protocol number: YBZY-2021-001). Written informed consent was obtained from all the subjects before study initiation. Eleven healthy volunteers were enrolled in this study, and the age of the participants ranged from 20 to 30 years.
Conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
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