Four types of research on superstitious behavior in humans and nonhumans were reviewed and discussed from the perspective of recent developments in this area. The first type explains the effects of periodic delivery of food on pigeons' superstitious responding in terms of stimulus substitution or species-specific appetitive behavior. Though this type of research is sometimes said to replicate Skinner (1948)'s experiment, this statement may not be accurate because the experiments emphasize the effects of contingencies in steady-state performance. The second type examines whether or not idiosyncratic and stereotyped patterns of behavior develop under response-independent contingencies with attention to accidental response-reinforcer contiguities. The third type includes a variety of studies examining the effects of response independence, such as delay of reinforcement. The fourth type studies superstitious behavior under response-dependent contingencies. It is suggested that further studies should be designed to examine more precisely the effects of response-reinforcer contiguity, aversive control, accidental reinforcement under response-dependent schedules, and verbal control over human superstitious behavior.
